Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Executive Function Deficits in Daily Life Prospectively Predict Increases in Depressive Symptoms

  • Brief Report
  • Published:
Cognitive Therapy and Research Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Executive function (EF) deficits are associated with depression. Given that few prospective studies have been conducted, it is unclear whether deficits contribute to depression or result from it. The present study examined whether self-reported EF prospectively predicted worsening of depression symptoms. Time 1 (T1) shifting, inhibition, and working memory (WM) were assessed in relation to T1 and time 2 (T2) depressive symptoms in participants pre-selected to range in risk for depression. Analyses indicated that poorer EF at T1 predicted increases in depressive symptoms and furthermore that this relationship was specific to WM. In contrast, a bidirectional relationship was not evident, as depressive symptoms did not prospectively predict changes in EF. Finally, T1 EF accounted for T2 depressive symptoms beyond two well established predictors of depression: depressive symptoms at T1 and rumination at T2. These findings suggest that EF deficits play an active role in depression onset, maintenance, and/or recurrence.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1

Notes

  1. The sampling strategy of the present study included the vast majority of the range of depression symptoms and executive function scores and there was no evidence of bimodality. In a study published by Fisher et al. (2007) a similar recruitment strategy was used, and their sampling strategy also included the vast majority of the score distribution.

  2. Because not all scores were normally distributed, Pearson and Spearman values were calculated when appropriate, as Spearman’s rho is a nonparametric correlation which deals with non-normal distributions.

References

  • Alexopoulos, G. S. (2003). The role of executive dysfunction in late-life depression. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 64, 18–23.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Austin, M.-P., Mitchell, P., & Goodwin, G. M. (2001). Cognitive deficits in depression: Possible implications for functional neuropathology. The British Journal of Psychiatry, 178, 200–206.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Banich, M. T. (2009). Executive function: The search for an integrated account. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 18, 89–94.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Barkley, R. A., & Murphy, K. R. (2010). Impairment in occupational functioning in adult ADHD: The predictive utility of executive function (EF) ratings versus EF tasks. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 25, 157–173.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Barkley, R. A., & Murphy, K. R. (2011). The nature of executive function (EF) deficits in daily life activities in adults with ADHD and their relationship to performance on EF tests. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 33, 137–158.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Beck, A. T. (1967). Depression: Clinical, experimental, and theoretical aspects. New York: Harper and Row.

    Google Scholar 

  • Beevers, C. G., Clasen, P., Stice, E., & Schnyer, D. (2010). Depression symptoms and cognitive control of emotional cues: A functional magnetic resonance imaging study. Neuroscience, 167, 97–103.

    Article  CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Biringer, E., Lundervold, A., Stordal, K., Mykletun, A., Egeland, J., Bottlender, R., et al. (2005). Executive function improvement upon remission of recurrent unipolar depression. European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience, 255, 373–380.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Channon, S., Baker, J., & Robertson, M. (1993). Working memory in clinical depression: An experimental study. Psychological Medicine, 23, 87–91.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Connolly, S. L., Wagner, C. A., Shapero, B. G., Pendergast, L. L., Abramson, L. Y., & Alloy, L. B. (2014). Rumination prospectively predicts executive functioning impairments in adolescence. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 45, 46–56.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Crocker, L. D., Heller, W., Spielberg, J. M., Warren, S. L., Bredemeier, K., Sutton, B. P., et al. (2012). Neural mechanisms of attentional control differentiate trait and state negative affect. Frontiers in Psychology, 3, 1–13.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Crocker, L. D., Heller, W., Warren, S. L., O’Hare, A. J., Infantolino, Z. P., & Miller, G. A. (2013). Relationships among cognition, emotion, and motivation: Implications for intervention and neuroplasticity in psychopathology. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 7, 1–19.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Davis, R. N., & Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (2000). Cognitive inflexibility among ruminators and nonruminators. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 24, 699–711.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ditcher, G. S., Felder, J. N., & Smoski, M. J. (2009). Affective context interferes with cognitive control in depression: An fMRI investigation. Journal of Affective Disorders, 114, 131–142.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ellis, H. C. (1991). Focused attention and depressive deficits in memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 120, 310–312.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Engels, A. S., Heller, W., Spielberg, J. M., Warren, S. L., Sutton, B. P., Banich, M. T., et al. (2010). Co-occurring anxiety influences patterns of brain activity in depression. Cognitive, Affective, and Behavioral Neuroscience, 10, 141–156.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fales, C. L., Barch, D. M., Rundle, M. M., Mintun, M. A., Snyder, A. Z., Cohen, J. D., et al. (2008). Altered emotional interference processing in affective cognitive-control brain circuitry in major depression. Biological Psychiatry, 63, 377–384.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fisher, J. E., Heller, W., & Miller, G. A. (2007). Semantic associations, lateralized frontal function, and context maintenance in schizotypy. Neuropsychologia, 2007, 663–672.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Furnham, A. (1986). Response bias, social desirability and dissimulation. Personality and Individual Differences, 7, 385–400.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gohier, B., Ferracci, L., Surguladze, S. A., Lawrence, E., Hage, W. E., Kefi, M. Z., et al. (2009). Cognitive inhibition and working memory in unipolar depression. Journal of Affective Disorders, 116, 100–105.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gotlib, I. H., & Joormann, J. (2010). Cognition and depression: Current status and future directions. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 6, 285–312.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hartlage, S., Alloy, L. B., Vásquez, C., & Dykman, B. (1993). Automatic and effortful processing in depression. Psychological Bulletin, 113, 247–278.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Harvey, P. O., Le Bastard, G., Pochon, J. B., Levy, R., Allilaire, J. F., Dubois, B., et al. (2004). Executive functions and updating of the contents of working memory in unipolar depression. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 38, 567–576.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Herrington, J. D., Heller, W., Mohanty, A., Engels, A. S., Banich, M. T., Webb, A. G., et al. (2010). Localization of asymmetric brain function in emotion and depression. Psychophysiology, 47, 442–454.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hertel, P. T. (1997). On the contributions of deficient cognitive control to memory impairments in depression. Cognition and Emotion, 11, 569–583.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hertel, P. T., & Rude, S. S. (1991). Depressive deficits in memory: Focusing attention improves subsequent recall. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 120, 301–309.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Joormann, J., & Gotlib, I. H. (2008). Updating the contents of working memory in depression: Interference from irrelevant negative material. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 115, 705–714.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Knouse, L. E., Barkley, R. A., & Murphy, K. R. (2013). Does executive functioning (EF) predict depression in clinic-referred adults? EF tests vs. rating scales. Journal of Affective Disorders, 145, 270–275.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Levin, R. L., Heller, W., Mohanty, A., Herrington, J. D., & Miller, G. A. (2007). Cognitive deficits in depression and functional specificity of regional brain activity. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 31, 211–233.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lo, B. C. Y., & Allen, N. B. (2011). Affective bias in internal attentional shifting among depressed youth. Psychiatry Research, 187, 125–129.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Michl, L. C., McLaughlin, K. A., Shepherd, K., & Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (2013). Rumination as a mechanism linking stressful life events to symptoms of depression and anxiety: Longitudinal evidence in early adolescents and adults. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 122, 339–352.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Miller, E. K., & Cohen, J. D. (2001). An integrative theory of prefrontal cortex function. Annual Review of Neuroscience, 24, 167–202.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Miyake, A., & Friedman, N. P. (2012). The nature and organization of individual differences in executive functions: Four general conclusions. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 21, 8–14.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Miyake, A., Friedman, N. P., Emerson, M. J., Witzki, A. H., Howerter, A., & Wager, T. D. (2000). The unity and diversity of executive functions and their contributions to complex “frontal lobe” tasks: A latent variable analysis. Cognitive Psychology, 41, 49–100.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Murrough, J. W., Iacoviello, B., Neumeister, A., Charney, D. S., & Iosifescu, D. V. (2011). Cognitive dysfunction in depression: Neurocircuitry and new therapeutic strategies. Neurobiology of Learning and Memory, 96, 553–563.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nisbett, R. E., & Wilson, T. D. (1977). Telling more than we can know: Verbal reports on mental processes. Psychological Review, 84, 231–259.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nolan, S. A., Roberts, J. E., & Gotlib, I. H. (1998). Neuroticism and ruminative response style as predictors of change in depressive symptomatology. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 22, 445–455.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (1991). Responses to depression and their effects on the duration of depressive episodes. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 100, 569–582.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nolen-Hoeksema, S., Wisco, B. E., & Lyubomirsky, S. (2008). Rethinking rumination. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 3, 400–424.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Porter, R. J., Gallagher, P., Thompson, J. M., & Young, A. H. (2003). Neurocognitive impairment in drug-free patients with major depressive disorder. The British Journal of Psychiatry, 182, 214–220.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Purcell, R., Maruff, P., Kyrios, M., & Pantelis, C. (1997). Neuropsychological function in young patients with unipolar major depression. Psychological Medicine, 27, 1277–1285.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rabin, L. A., Fogel, J., & Nutter-Upham, K. E. (2011). Academic procrastination in college students: The role of self-reported executive function. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 33, 344–357.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rabin, L. A., Roth, R. M., Isquith, P. K., Wishart, H. A., Pare, N., Flashman, L. A., et al. (2006). Self- and informant reports of executive function on the BRIEF-A in MCI and older adults with cognitive complaints. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 21, 721–732.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rogers, M. A., Kasai, K., Koji, M., Fukuda, R., Iwanami, A., Nakagome, K., et al. (2004). Executive and prefrontal dysfunction in unipolar depression: A review of neuropsychological and imaging evidence. Neuroscience Research, 50, 1–11.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Romine, C. B., & Reynolds, C. R. (2005). A model of the development of frontal lobe functioning: Findings from a meta-analysis. Applied Neuropsychology, 12, 190–201.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rose, E. J., & Ebmeier, K. P. (2006). Pattern of impaired working memory during major depression. Journal of Affective Disorders, 90, 149–161.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Roth, R. M., Isquith, P. K., & Gioia, G. A. (2005). BRIEF-A: Behavior rating inventory of executive function-adult version. Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources.

    Google Scholar 

  • Saunders, J. B., Aasland, O. G., & Babor, T. F. (1993). Development of the alcohol use disorders identification test (AUDIT): WHO collaborative project on early detection of persons with harmful alcohol consumption—II. Addiction, 88, 791–803.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Segerstrom, S. C., Tsao, J. C. I., Alden, L. E., & Craske, M. G. (2000). Worry and rumination; repetitive thought as concomitant and predictor of negative mood. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 24, 671–688.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Skinner, H. A. (1982). The drug abuse screening test. Addictive Behaviors, 7, 363–371.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Snyder, H. R. (2013). Major depressive disorder is associated with broad impairments on neuropsychological measures of executive function: A meta-analysis and review. Psychological Bulletin, 139, 81–132.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Strunk, D. R., Lopez, H., & DeRubeis, R. J. (2006). Depressive symptoms are associated with unrealistic negative predictions of future life events. Behavior Research and Therapy, 44, 861–882.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Toplak, M. E., West, R. F., & Stanovich, K. E. (2013). Practitioner review: Do performance-based measures and ratings of executive function assess the same construct? Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 54, 131–143.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Trapnell, P. D., & Campbell, J. D. (1999). Private self consciousness and the five-factor model of personality: Distinguishing rumination from reflection. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 76, 284–304.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Warren, S. L., Crocker, L. D., Spielberg, J. M., Engels, A. S., Banich, M. T., Sutton, B., et al. (2013). Cortical organization of inhibition-related functions and modulation by psychopathology. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 7, 271.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Watson, D., Clark, L. A., & Tellegen, A. (1988). Development and validation of brief measures of positive and negative affect: The PANAS scales. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54, 1063–1070.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Watson, D., Clark, L. A., Weber, K., Assenheimer, J. S., Strauss, M. E., & McCormick, R. A. (1995a). Testing a tripartite model: II. Exploring the symptom structure of anxiety and depression in student, adult, and patient samples. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 104, 15–25.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Watson, D., Weber, K., Assenheimer, J. S., Clark, L. A., Strauss, M. E., & McCormick, R. A. (1995b). Testing a tripartite model: I. Evaluating the convergent and discriminant validity of anxiety and depression symptom scales. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 104, 3–14.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Yers, B. E., Wallace, G. L., Sokoloff, J. L., Shook, D. A., James, J. D., & Kenworthy, L. (2009). Attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder symptoms moderate cognition and behavior in children with autism spectrum disorders. Autism Research, 2, 322–333.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

A portion of these results was reported at the annual meeting of the Society for Research in Psychopathology, 2013. Support for this work was provided by the National Institute of Mental Health (P50 MH07948, R01 MH61358, MH19554).

Conflict of Interest

Allison M. Letkiewicz, Gregory A. Miller, Laura D. Crocker, Stacie L. Warren, Zachary P. Infantolino, Katherine J. Mimnaugh, Wendy Heller declare that they have no conflict of interest.

Informed Consent

The present study was approved by the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign Institutional Review Board. All procedures followed were in accordance with the ethical standards of the responsible committee on human experimentation (University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign) and with the Helsinki Declaration of 1975, as revised in 2000. Informed consent was obtained from all participants for being included in the study.

Animal Rights

No animal studies were carried out by the authors for this article.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Psychology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 603 E. Daniel St., Champaign, IL, 61820, USA

    Allison M. Letkiewicz, Gregory A. Miller, Laura D. Crocker, Stacie L. Warren, Katherine J. Mimnaugh & Wendy Heller

  2. Department of Psychology and Department of Psychiatry and Biobehavioral Sciences, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, USA

    Gregory A. Miller

  3. Department of Psychology, Palo Alto University, Palo Alto, CA, USA

    Stacie L. Warren

  4. Department of Psychology, University of Delaware, Newark, DE, USA

    Zachary P. Infantolino

Authors
  1. Allison M. Letkiewicz
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Gregory A. Miller
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Laura D. Crocker
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Stacie L. Warren
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Zachary P. Infantolino
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  6. Katherine J. Mimnaugh
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  7. Wendy Heller
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Allison M. Letkiewicz.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Letkiewicz, A.M., Miller, G.A., Crocker, L.D. et al. Executive Function Deficits in Daily Life Prospectively Predict Increases in Depressive Symptoms. Cogn Ther Res 38, 612–620 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10608-014-9629-5

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10608-014-9629-5

Keywords

Search

Navigation