Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Childrearing Style of Anxiety-Disordered Parents

  • Original Paper
  • Published:
Child Psychiatry and Human Development Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

This study investigated whether anxiety-disordered (AD) parents differ in their childrearing style from non-disordered parents. A clinical sample of 36 AD parents with children aged 6–18 was compared with a normal control sample of 36 parents. Childrearing was assessed through parent report and child report. The results demonstrated significant differences in childrearing style between AD parents and non-disordered control parents, both from the perspective of the parent and from that of the child. AD parents reported a less nurturing and more restrictive rearing style than control parents. Their children did not report more rejection or less warmth than children of control parents; they did, however, report significantly more overprotection than children of control parents. The findings, from parental as well as child reports, apply to both AD mothers and AD fathers.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  1. Weissman MM, Leckman JF, Merikangas KR, Gammon GD, Prusoff BA (1984) Depression and anxiety disorders in parents and children: results from the Yale Family Study. Arch Gen Psychiatry 41:845–852

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  2. Turner SM, Beidel DC, Costello A (1987) Psychopathology in the offspring of anxiety disorders patients. J Consult Clin Psychol 55:229–235

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  3. Mancini C, van Ameringen M, Szatmari P, Fugere C, Boyle M (1996) A high-risk pilot study of the children of adults with social phobia. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 35:1511–1517

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  4. Biederman J, Faraone SV, Hirshfeld-Becker DR, Friedman D, Robin JA, Rosenbaum JF (2001) Patterns of psychopathology and dysfunction in high-risk children of parents with panic disorder and major depression. Am J Psychiatry 158:49–57

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  5. Kashani JH, Vaidya AF, Soltys SM, Dandoy AC, Katz LM, Reid JC (1990) Correlates of anxiety in psychiatrically hospitalized children and their parents. Am J Psychiatry 147:319–323

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  6. Last CG, Hersen M, Kazdin A, Orvaschel H, Perrin S (1991) Anxiety disorders in children and their families. Arch Gen Psychiatry 48:928–934

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  7. Kendler KS, Heath AC, Martin NG, Eaves LJ (1987) Symptoms of anxiety, symptoms of depression. Same genes, different environments? Arch Gen Psychiatry 44:451–457

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  8. Eaves LJ, Silberg JL, Meyer LM, Maes HH, Simonoff E, Pickels A, Rutter M, Neale MC, Reynolds CA, Erickson MT, Heath AC, Loeber R, Truett KR, Hewitt JK (1997) Genetics and developmental psychopathology: 2. The main effects of genes and environment on behavioral problems in the Virginia Twin Study of Adolescent Behavioral Development. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 38:965–980

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  9. Van der Valk JC, Verhulst FC, Neale MC, Boomsma DI (1998) Longitudinal genetic analysis of problem behaviors in biologically related and unrelated adoptees. Behav Genet 28:365-380

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  10. Boer F, Lindhout IE (2001) Family and genetic influences: is anxiety “all in the family”? In: Silverman WK, Treffers PhDA (eds) Anxiety disorders in children and adolescents: research, assessment and intervention. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp 235–254

    Google Scholar 

  11. Perris C (1994) Linking the experience of dysfunctional parental rearing with manifest psychopathology: a theoretical framework. In: Perris C, Arrindell WA, Eisemann M (eds) Parenting and psychopathology. John Wiley & Sons, Chichester, pp 3–32

    Google Scholar 

  12. Treffers PhDA, Silverman WK (2001) Anxiety and its disorders in children and adolescents before the twentieth century. In: Silverman WK, Treffers PhDA (eds) Anxiety disorders in children and adolescents. Research, assessment and intervention. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp 1–22

    Google Scholar 

  13. Gerlsma C, Emmelkamp PMG, Arrindell WA (1990) Anxiety, depression, and perception of early parenting: a meta-analysis. Clin Psychol Rev 10:251–277

    Article  Google Scholar 

  14. Rapee RM (1997) Potential role of childrearing practices in the development of anxiety and depression. Clin Psychol Rev 17:47–67

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  15. Messer SC, Beidel DC (1994) Psychosocial correlates of childhood anxiety disorders. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 33:975–983

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  16. Chorpita BF, Barlow DH (1998) The development of anxiety: the role of control in the early environment. Psychol Bull 124:3–21

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  17. Hock M, Krohne HW (1989) Mütterliches Erziehungsverhalten während einer Hausaufgabenanfertigung und Angstlichkeit beim Kind. Zeitschrift fur Pädagogische Psychologie, 2:169–180

    Google Scholar 

  18. Krohne HW, Hock M (1991) Relationship between restrictive mother–child interactions and anxiety of the child. Anxiety Res 4:109–124

    Google Scholar 

  19. Dadds MR, Barrett PM, Rapee RM, Ryan S (1996) Family process and child anxiety and aggression: an observational analysis. J Abnorm Child Psychol 24:715–734

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  20. Siqueland L, Kendall PC, Steinberg L (1996) Anxiety in children: perceived family environments and observed family interaction. J Clin Child Psychol 25:225–237

    Article  Google Scholar 

  21. Hudson JL, Rapee RM (2001) Parent–child interactions and anxiety disorders: an observational study. Behav Res Ther 39:1411–1427

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  22. Bowen F, Vitaro F, Kerr M, Pelletier D (1995) Childhood internalizing problems: prediction from kindergarten, effects of maternal overprotectiveness, and sex differences. Dev Psychopathol 7:481–498

    Article  Google Scholar 

  23. Muris P, Merckelbach H (1998) Perceived parental rearing behavior and anxiety disorders symptoms in normal children. Pers Individ Dif 25:1199–1206

    Article  Google Scholar 

  24. Grüner K, Muris P, Merkelbach H (1999) The relationship between anxious rearing behaviors and anxiety disorders symptomatology in normal children. J Behav Ther Exp Psychiatry 30:27–35

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  25. Lieb R, Wittchen H, Höfler M, Fuetsch M, Stein MB, Merikangas KR (2000) Parental psychopathology, parenting styles, and the risk of social phobia in offspring. Arch Gen Psychiatry 57:859–866

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  26. Hirshfeld DR, Biederman J, Brody L, Faraone SV, Rosenbaum JF (1997) Expressed emotion toward children with behavioral inhibition: associations with maternal anxiety disorder. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 36:910–917

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  27. Whaley SE, Pinto A, Sigman M (1999) Characterizing interactions between anxious mothers and their children. J Consult Clin Psychol 67:826–836

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  28. McClure EB, Brennan PA, Hammen C, Le Brocque RM (2001) Parental anxiety disorders, child anxiety disorders, and the perceived parent–child relationship in an Australian high-risk sample. J Abnorm Child Psychol 29:1–10

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  29. Turner SM, Beidel DC, Roberson-Nay R, Tervo K (2003) Parenting behaviors in parents with anxiety disorders. Behav Res Ther 41:541–554

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  30. Warren SL, Gunnar MR, Kagan J, Anders TE, Simmens SJ, Rones M, Wease S, Aron E, Dahl RE, Sroufe LA (2003) Maternal panic disorder: infant temperament, neurophysiology, and parenting behaviors. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 42:814–825

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  31. Moore PS, Whaley SE, Sigman M (2004) Interactions between mothers and children: impacts of maternal and child anxiety. J Abnorm Psychol 113:471–476

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  32. Moos RH, Moos BS (1986) Family Environment Scale Manual. 2nd edn. Consulting Psychologists Press, Palo Alto, CA

    Google Scholar 

  33. Parker G, Tupling H, Brown LB (1979) A Parental Bonding Instrument. Br J Med Psychol 52:1–10

    Google Scholar 

  34. Dierker LC, Merikangas KR, Szatmari P (1999) Influence of parental concordance for psychiatric disorder on psychopathology in offspring. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 38:280–288

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  35. Schludermann S, Schludermann E (1988) Shortened Child Report of Parent Behavior Inventory (CRPBI-30): Schludermann Revision. Unpublished manuscript. University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Canada

  36. Gerlsma C, Arrindell WA, van der Veen N, Emmelkamp PMG (1991) A parental rearing style questionnaire for use with adolescents: a psychometric evaluation of the EMBU-A. Pers Individ Dif 12:1245–1253

    Article  Google Scholar 

  37. De Ruiter C, Bouman TK, Hoogduin CAL (1993) Anxiety Disorders Interview Schedule-Dutch version

  38. Di Nardo PA, Barlow DH (1988) Anxiety Disorders Interview Schedule-Revised (ADIS-R). Phobic and Anxiety Disorders Clinic, State University of New York, Albany, NY

    Google Scholar 

  39. Di Nardo PA, Moras K, Barlow DA, Rapee RM, Brown TA (1993) Reliability of DSM-III-R anxiety disorder categories. Using the Anxiety Disorders Interview Schedule-Revised (ADIS-R). Arch Gen Psychiatry 50:251–256

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  40. De Ruiter C (1994). Het Anxiety Disorders Interview Schedule-Nederlandse versie (1993). Gedragstherapie 1:65–68

    Google Scholar 

  41. Block JH (1965) The Child-Rearing Practices Report. Institute of Human Development, University of California, Berkeley, CA

    Google Scholar 

  42. Block JH (1981) The Child-Rearing Practices Report (CRPR): a set of Q items for the description of parental socialisation attitudes and values. Unpublished manuscript. Berkeley, CA: Institute of Human Development, University of California

  43. Hastings PD, Rubin KH (1999) Predicting mothers’ beliefs about preschool-aged children’s social behavior: evidence for maternal attitudes moderating child effects. Child Dev 70(3):722–741

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  44. Gerhardt CA, Vannatta K, McKellop JM, Tayler J, Passo M, Reiter-Purtill J, Zeller M, Noll RB (2003) Brief report: child-rearing practices of caregivers with and without a child with juvenile rheumatoid arthritis: perspectives of caregivers and professionals. J Pediatric Psychol 28(4):275–279

    Article  Google Scholar 

  45. Kochanska G, Kuczynski L, Radke-Yarrow M (1989) Correspondence between mother’s self-reported and observed child-rearing practices. Child Dev 60:56–63

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  46. Deković M, Janssens JMAM, Gerris JM (1991) Factor structure and construct validity of the Block Child Rearing Practices Report (CRPR). Psychol Assess: J Consult Clin Psychol 3:182–187

    Google Scholar 

  47. Rickel AV, Biasatti LL (1982) Modifications of the Block Child Rearing Practices Report. J Clin Psychol 38:129–134

    Article  Google Scholar 

  48. Perris C, Jacobsson L, Lindström H, von Knorring L, Perris H (1980) Development of a new inventory of parental rearing behavior. Acta Psychiatr Scand 61:265–274

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  49. Arrindell WA, Emmelkamp PMG, Brilman E, Monsma A (1983) Psychometric evaluation of an inventory for assessment of parental rearing practices: a Dutch form of the EMBU. Acta Psychiatr Scand 67:163–177

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  50. Arrindell WA, Perris C, Eisemann M, Van der Ende, Gaszner P, Iwawaki S, Maj M, Zhang J-E (1994) Parental rearing behavior from a cross-cultural perspective : A summary of data obtained in 14 nations. In: Perris C, Arrindell WA, Eisemann M (eds) Parenting and psychopathology. John Wiley & Sons Ltd, Chichester, pp 145–171

    Google Scholar 

  51. Schwarz JC, Barton-Henry ML, Pruzynski T (1985) Assessing child-rearing behaviors: a comparison of ratings made by mother, father, child, and sibling on the CRPBI. Child Dev 56:462–479

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  52. Bögels SM, Oosten A van, Muris P, Smulders D (2001) Familial correlates of social anxiety in children and adolescents. Behav Res Ther 39:273–287

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  53. Holm S (1979) A simple sequentially rejective multiple test procedure. Scand J Stat 6:65–70

    Google Scholar 

  54. Gerlsma C, Snijders TAB, van Duijn MAJ, Emmelkamp PMG (1993) It’s a family affair, or is it? Differences in family members’ perceptions of parental rearing styles, In: Gerlsma C, (ed) Parental rearing styles and psychopathology: memories of parenting revisited, dissertation, Enschede

  55. Gonzales NA, Cauce AM, Mason CA (1996) Interobserver agreement in the assessment of parental behavior and parent–adolescent conflict: African-American mothers, daughter, and independent observers. Child Dev 67:1483–1498

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  56. Manassis K (2000) Childhood anxiety disorders: lessons from the literature. Can J Psychiatry 45:724–730

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  57. Biederman J, Rosenbaum JF, Hirshfeld DR, Faraone SV, Bolduc EA, Gersten M, Meminger SR, Kagan J, Snidman N, Reznick JS (1990) Psychiatric correlates of behavioral inhibition in young children of parents with and without psychiatric disorders. Arch Gen Psychiatry 47:21–26

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  58. Rapee RM (2001) The development of generalized anxiety. In: Vasey MW, Dadds MR (eds) The developmental psychopathology of anxiety. Oxford University Press, New York, pp 481–503

    Google Scholar 

  59. Markus MTh, Lindhout IE, Boer F, Hoogendijk THG, Arrindell WA (2003) Factors of perceived parental rearing styles: the EMBU-C examined in a sample of Dutch primary school children. Pers Individ Dif 34:503–519

    Article  Google Scholar 

  60. Gerull FC, Rapee RM (2002) Mother knows best: effects of maternal modelling on the acquisition of fear and avoidance in toddlers. Behav Res Ther 40:279–287

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  61. Field AP, Argyris NG, Knowles KA (2001) Who’s afraid of the big bad wolf: a prospective paradigm to test Rachman’s indirect pathways in children. Behav Res Ther 39:1259–1276

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  62. Muris P, Bodden D, Merckelbach H, Ollendick TH, King N (2003) Fear of the beast: a prospective study on the effects of negative information on childhood fear. Behav Res Ther 41:195–208

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  63. Gerlsma C, Emmelkamp PMG (1994) How large are gender differences in perceived parental rearing styles?: a meta-analytic review. In: Perris C, Arrindell WA, Eisemann M (eds) Parenting and psychopathology. John Wiley & Sons, Chichester, pp 55–73

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

Thanks are due to T. Rombouts, and other staff members of the psychiatric clinics, and the participating patients and their families. Prof. Dr. Ph.D.A. Treffers has contributed valuable comments to this paper. We gratefully acknowledge the assistance of Y. van Wankum and clinical psychology graduate students in conducting this investigation. Completion of this study was facilitated by Grant 4105 from the Dutch National Fund for Mental Health.

Author information

Author notes

  1. Ingeborg Lindhout

    Present address: Triversum, Centre for Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, P.O. Box 225, 1800 AE, Alkmaar, The Netherlands

  2. Frits Boer

    Present address: AMC—De Bascule, P.O. Box 12474, 1100, AL, Amsterdam, The Netherlands

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Academic Centre for Child and Adolescent Psychiatry Curium and Leiden University Medical Centre, Endegeesterstraatweg 27, 2342, AK, Oegstgeest, The Netherlands

    Ingeborg Lindhout, Monica Markus, Thea Hoogendijk, Sophie Borst, Ragna Maingay & Frits Boer

  2. Department of Clinical Health Psychology, University of Leiden, P.O. Box 9555, 2300, RB, Leiden, The Netherlands

    Philip Spinhoven

  3. Department of Psychiatry VU Medical Centre/GGZ BuitenAmstel, Free University, Valeriusplein 9, 1075, BG, Amsterdam, The Netherlands

    Richard van Dyck

Authors
  1. Ingeborg Lindhout
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Monica Markus
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Thea Hoogendijk
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Sophie Borst
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Ragna Maingay
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  6. Philip Spinhoven
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  7. Richard van Dyck
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  8. Frits Boer
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Ingeborg Lindhout.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Lindhout, I., Markus, M., Hoogendijk, T. et al. Childrearing Style of Anxiety-Disordered Parents. Child Psychiatry Hum Dev 37, 89–102 (2006). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10578-006-0022-9

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10578-006-0022-9

Keywords

Search

Navigation