Skip to main content
Log in

Distance Running as an Ideal Domain for Showing a Sex Difference in Competitiveness

  • Original Paper
  • Published:
Archives of Sexual Behavior Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Men are over-represented in the arts, sciences, and sports. This has been hypothesized to reflect an evolved male predisposition for enduring competitiveness or long-term motivation to improve one’s performance and “show-off.” Evidence for this hypothesis is equivocal, however, because there are viable alternative explanations for men’s dominance in most cultural display domains. Here, I argue that distance running is an ideal domain for addressing this issue. Distance running is ideal because it indicates enduring competitiveness, allows objective comparisons, and is accessible, acceptable, and popular for both men and women. I review recent studies and present new data showing that substantially more men than women run relatively fast in the U.S., that this sex difference in relative performance can be attributed, at least in part, to men’s greater training motivation, and that this pattern has been stable for several decades. Distance running thus provides compelling evidence for an evolved male predisposition for enduring competitiveness. I conclude with suggestions regarding how variation in achievement motivation can be informed by considering how evolved predispositions interact with environmental and social conditions.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

Notes

  1. It would be desirable to estimate the size of the sex difference in relative performance in terms of a traditional effect size statistic, such as Cohen’s d. No study has done this yet, although Deaner (2006b, Fig. 1) suggests the effect size is small to moderate. However, a modest overall population effect does not undermine the point that the sex difference can be large in the tail of distribution, and expressing the sex difference there as a ratio of male to female high achievers is reasonable (see Hedges & Nowell, 1995).

References

  • Agassi, A. (2009). Open: An autobiography. New York: Knopf.

    Google Scholar 

  • All-Time Performances. (2010). In Association of Road Racing Statisticians. Retrieved December 27, 2010, from http://www.arrs.net/AllTime/AL_Mara.htm.

  • Andersson, M. (1994). Sexual selection. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Athletics at the 1972. (2011). In Wikipedia. Retrieved April 4, 2011, from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Athletics_at_the_1972_Summer_Olympics.

  • Athletics at the 2008. (2011). In Wikipedia. Retrieved March 11, 2011, from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Athletics_at_the_2008_Summer_Olympics.

  • Backmand, H., Kujala, U., Sarna, S., & Kaprio, J. (2010). Former athletes’ health-related lifestyle behaviours and self-rated health in late adulthood. International Journal of Sports Medicine, 31, 751–758.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Baker, J., Côté, J., & Abernethy, B. (2003). Sport-specific practice and the development of expert decision-making in team ball sports. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 15, 12–25.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bale, P., Bradbury, D., & Colley, E. (1986). Anthropometric and training variables related to 10 km running performance. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 20, 170–173.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bale, P., Rowell, S., & Colley, E. (1985). Anthropometric and training characteristics of female marathon runners as determinants of distance running performance. Journal of Sports Sciences, 3, 115–126.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. New York: Freeman.

    Google Scholar 

  • Battersby, C. (1989). Gender and genius. London: Women’s Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Baumeister, R. F., Catanese, K. R., & Vohs, K. D. (2001). Is there a gender difference in strength of sex drive? Theoretical views, conceptual distinctions, and a review of relevant evidence. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 5, 242–273.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Baumeister, R. F., & Sommer, K. L. (1997). What do men want? Gender differences and two spheres of belongingness: Comment on Cross and Madson (1997). Psychological Bulletin, 122, 38–44.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bennett, W. C. (1935). The Tarahumara: An Indian tribe of northern Mexico. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Berg, K. (2003). Endurance training and performance in runners: Research limitations and unanswered questions. Sports Medicine, 33, 59–73.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Betzig, L. L. (1986). Despotism and differential reproduction: A Darwinian view of history. New York: Aldine.

    Google Scholar 

  • Beverly, J. (2008). Born at the right time: The renaissance in high school running. Running Times, 360, 37–40.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bjorkqvist, K. (1994). Sex differences in physical, verbal, and indirect aggression: A review of recent research. Sex Roles, 30, 177–183.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bliege Bird, R., & Smith, E. A. (2005). Signaling theory, strategic interaction, and symbolic capital. Current Anthropology, 46, 221–248.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bowen, W. G., & Levin, S. A. (2003). Reclaiming the game: College sports and educational values. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Budd, Z., & Eley, H. (1989). Zola: Autobiography of Zola Budd. London: Partridge Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Burfoot, A. (2011). The turning point. Runner’s World, 46(1), 58–65.

    Google Scholar 

  • Buss, D. M., & Schmitt, D. P. (1993). Sexual strategies theory: An evolutionary perspective on human mating. Psychological Review, 100, 204–232.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Byrnes, J. P., Miller, D. C., & Schafer, W. D. (1999). Gender differences in risk taking: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 125, 367–383.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Callen, K. E. (1983). Mental and emotional aspects of long-distance running. Psychosomatics, 24, 133–151.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cameron, E., Day, T., & Rowe, L. (2003). Sexual conflict and indirect benefits. Journal of Evolutionary Biology, 16, 1055–1060.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Campbell, A. (1999). Staying alive: Evolution, culture, and women’s intrasexual aggression. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 22, 203–252.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cashdan, E. (1996). Women’s mating strategies. Evolutionary Anthropology, 5, 134–143.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ceci, S. J., & Williams, W. M. (2010). The mathematics of sex: How biology and society conspire to limit talented women and girls. New York: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ceci, S. J., & Williams, W. M. (2011). Understanding current causes of women’s underrepresentation in science. Proceedings of the National academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 108, 3157–3162.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ceci, S. J., Williams, W. M., & Barnett, S. M. (2009). Women’s underrepresentation in science: Sociocultural and biological considerations. Psychological Bulletin, 135, 218–261.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chabris, C. F., & Glickman, M. E. (2006). Sex differences in intellectual performance. Psychological Science, 17, 1040–1046.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chapman, A. (1982). Drama and power in a hunting society: The Selk’nam of Tierra del Fuego. New York: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chase, M. A., & Dummer, G. M. (1992). The role of sports as a social status determinant in children. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 63, 418–424.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cheuvront, S. N., Carter, R., Deruisseau, K. C., & Moffatt, R. J. (2005). Running performance differences between men and women: An update. Sports Medicine, 35, 1017–1024.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Clement, D. B., Taunton, J. E., Smart, G. W., & McNicol, K. L. (1981). A survey of overuse running injuries. The Physician and Sports Medicine, 9, 47–58.

    Google Scholar 

  • Colley, A. (1987). Attitudes to the female sex-role and sex-typing of physical activities. International Journal of Sport Psychology, 18, 19–29.

    Google Scholar 

  • Countries and Economies. (n.d.). In The World Bank. Retrieved from http://data.worldbank.org/country. Accessed 4 May 2012.

  • Croson, R., & Gneezy, U. (2009). Gender differences in preferences. Journal of Economic Literature, 47, 448–474.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • de Block, A., & Dewitte, S. (2009). Darwinism and the cultural evolution of sports. Perspectives in Biology and Medicine, 52, 1–16.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • de Bruijn, G. J., de Groot, R., van den Putte, B., & Rhodes, R. (2009). Conscientiousness, extroversion, and action control: Comparing moderate and vigorous physical activity. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 31, 724–742.

    Google Scholar 

  • de Bruin, A. B. H., Smits, N., Rikers, R. M. J. P., Henk, G., & Schmidt, H. G. (2008). Deliberate practice predicts performance over time in adolescent chess players and drop-outs: A linear mixed models analysis. British Journal of Psychology, 99, 473–497.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Deaner, R. O. (2006a). More males run fast: A stable sex difference in competitiveness in U.S. distance runners. Evolution and Human Behavior, 27, 63–84.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Deaner, R. O. (2006b). More males run relatively fast in U.S. road races: Further evidence of a sex difference in competitiveness. Evolutionary Psychology, 4, 303–314.

    Google Scholar 

  • Deaner, R. O., Geary, D. C., Ham, S. A., & Kruger, J. (2011). An evolved sex difference in the predisposition for physical competition: Males play sports much more than females even in the contemporary U.S. (manuscript submitted).

  • Deaner, R. O., Masters, K. S., Ogles, B. M., & LaCaille, R. A. (2011b). Marathon performance as a predictor of competitiveness and training in men and women. Journal of Sport Behavior, 34, 325–342.

    Google Scholar 

  • Deaner, R. O., & Mitchell, D. (2011). More men run relatively fast in U.S. road races, 1981–2006: A stable sex difference in non-elite runners. Evolutionary Psychology, 9, 600–621.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Deaner, R. O., & Smith, B. A. (2012). Sex differences in sports across 50 societies. Available at SSRN: http://ssrn.com/abstract=2009329. Accessed 4 May 2012.

  • DeBruine, L., Jones, B. C., Frederick, D. A., Haselton, M. G., Penton-Voak, I. S., & Perrett, D. I. (2010). Evidence for menstrual cycle shifts in women's preferences for masculinity: A response to Harris “Menstrual cycle and facial preferences reconsidered”. Evolutionary Psychology, 8, 768–775.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2000). The “what” and “why” of goal pursuits: Human needs and the self-determination of behavior. Psychological Inquiry, 11, 227–268.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dolgener, F. A., Kolkhorst, F. W., & Whitsett, D. A. (1994). Long slow distance training in novice marathoners. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 65, 339–346.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dreber, A., Gerdes, C., & Gränsmark, P. (2010). Beauty queens and battling knights: Risk taking and attractiveness in chess. IZA DP No. 5314.

  • Eagly, A. H., & Wood, W. (1999). The origins of sex differences in human behavior: Evolved dispositions versus social roles. American Psychologist, 54, 408–423.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Eccles, J. S., & Wigfield, A. (2002). Motivational beliefs, values, and goals. Annual Review of Psychology, 53, 109–132.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Eddy, D. O., Sparks, K. L., & Adelizi, D. A. (1977). The effects of continuous and interval training in women and men. European Journal of Applied Physiology, 37, 83–92.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ericsson, K. A., Krampe, R. Th., & Tesch-Römer, C. (1993). The role of deliberate practice in the acquisition of expert performance. Psychological Review, 100, 363–406.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ericsson, K. A., Nandagopal, K., & Roring, R. W. (2009). Toward a science of exceptional achievement: Attaining superior performance through deliberate practice. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1172, 199–217.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Farrelly, D., & Nettle, D. (2007). Marriage affects competitive performance in male tennis players. Journal of Evolutionary Psychology, 5, 141–148.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Faurie, C., Pontier, D., & Raymond, M. (2004). Student athletes claim to have more sexual partners than other students. Evolution and Human Behavior, 25, 1–8.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ferriman, K., Lubinski, D., & Benbow, C. P. (2009). Work preferences, life values, and personal views of top math/science graduate students and the profoundly gifted: Developmental changes and gender differences during emerging adulthood and parenthood. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 97, 517–532.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • FIFA Big Count. (2007). In FIFA. Retrieved May 31, 2007, from http://www.fifa.com/mm/document/fifafacts/bcoffsurv/bigcount.statspackage_7024.pdf. Accessed 4 May 2012.

  • Fischer, M. (2004). Female intrasexual competition decreases female facial attractiveness. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London Biology Supplement, 271, S283–S285.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Földesi, G. S. (2004). Social status and mobility of Hungarian elite athletes. International Journal of the History of Sport, 21, 710–726.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Frick, B. (2011a). Gender differences in competitiveness: Empirical evidence from professional distance running. Labour Economics, 18, 389–398.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Frick, B. (2011b). Gender differences in competitive orientations: Empirical evidence from ultramarathon running. Journal of Sports Economics, 12, 317–340.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Frietsch, R., Haller, I., Funken-Vrohlings, M., & Gruppa, H. (2009). Gender-specific patterns in patenting and publishing. Research Policy, 38, 590–599.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gangestad, S. W., Haselton, M. G., & Buss, D. M. (2006). Evolutionary foundations of cultural variation: Evoked culture and mate preferences. Psychological Inquiry, 17, 75–95.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Geary, D. C. (2010). Male, female: The evolution of human sex differences (2nd ed.). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Gill, D. L. (1986). Competitiveness among females and males in physical-activity classes. Sex Roles, 15, 233–247.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Goldin, C., & Rouse, C. (2000). Orchestrating impartiality: The impact of “blind” auditions on female musicians. American Economic Review, 90, 715–741.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gotaas, T. (2009). Running: A global history. London: Reaktion Books.

    Google Scholar 

  • Greene, L., & Pate, R. (2004). Training for young distance runners (2nd ed.). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.

    Google Scholar 

  • Griskevicius, V., Cialdini, R. B., & Kenrick, D. T. (2006). Peacocks, Picasso, and parental investment: The effects of romantic motives on creativity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 91, 63–76.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Guttmann, A. (1991). Women’s sports: A history. New York: Columbia University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Guttmann, A. (2004). Sports: The first five millennia. Amherst, MA: University of Massachusetts Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hagan, R. D., Smith, M. G., & Gettman, L. R. (1981). Marathon performance in relation to maximal aerobic power and training indices. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 13, 185–189.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hakim, C. (2006). Women, careers, and work–life preferences. British Journal of Guidance and Counseling, 34, 279–294.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ham, S. A., Kruger, J., & Tudor-Locke, C. (2009). Participation by US adults in sports, exercise, and recreational physical activities. Journal of Physical Activity & Health, 6, 6–14.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hamilton, W. D., & Zuk, M. (1982). Heritable true fitness and bright birds: A role for parasites. Science, 218, 384–387.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hansen, J. C. (1988). Changing interests of women: Myth or reality? Applied Psychology, 37, 133–150.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hawkes, K., & Bliege Bird, R. (2002). Showing off, handicap signaling, and the evolution of men’s work. Evolutionary Anthropology, 11, 58–67.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hedges, L. V., & Nowell, A. (1995). Sex-differences in mental test-scores, variability, and numbers of high-scoring individuals. Science, 269, 41–45.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hillman, C. H., Erickson, K. I., & Kramer, A. F. (2008). Be smart, exercise your heart: Exercise effects on brain and cognition. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 9, 58–65.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hogshead-Makar, N., & Zimbalist, A. (Eds.). (2007). Equal play: Title IX and social change. Philadelphia: Temple University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hönekopp, J., & Schuster, M. (2010). A meta-analysis on 2D:4D and athletic prowess: Substantial relationships but neither hand out-predicts the other. Personality and Individual Differences, 48, 4–10.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hooper, P., & Miller, G. F. (2008). Mutual mate choice can drive ornament evolution even under perfect monogamy. Adaptive Behavior, 16, 53–70.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Howard, R. (2005). Are gender differences in high achievement disappearing? A test in one intellectual domain. Journal of Biosocial Science, 37, 371–380.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hrdy, S. B. (1999). The woman that never evolved. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. (Originally published 1981.)

  • Hyde, J. S. (2005). The gender similarities hypothesis. American Psychologist, 60, 581–592.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hyde, J. S., & Kling, K. C. (2001). Women, motivation, and achievement. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 25, 364–378.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • In Brief. (2011). In Guttmacher Institute. Retrieved January 2011, from http://www.guttmacher.org/pubs/FB-ATSRH.html.

  • Johnsgard, K. (1985). The motivation of the long distance runner: I. Journal of Sports Medicine and Physical Fitness, 25, 135–139.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Joyner, M. J. (1993). Physiological limiting factors and distance running: Influence of gender and age on record performances. Exercise and Sport Sciences Reviews, 21, 103–133.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Judah, T. (2009). Bikila: Ethiopia’s barefoot Olympian. London: Reportage Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kalinowski, A. G. (1985). The development of Olympic swimmers. In B. S. Bloom (Ed.), Developing talent in young people (pp. 139–192). New York: Ballantine.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kanazawa, S. (2000). Scientific discoveries as cultural displays: A further test of Miller’s courtship model. Evolution and Human Behavior, 21, 317–321.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kanazawa, S. (2003). Why productivity fades with age: The crime–genius connection. Journal of Research in Personality, 37, 257–272.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Karp, J. R. (2007). Training characteristics of qualifiers for the US Olympic Marathon Trials. International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance, 2, 72–92.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kirkpatrick, M., & Ryan, M. (1991). The evolution of mating preferences and the paradox of the Lek. Nature, 350, 33–38.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Koivula, N. (1995). Ratings of gender appropriateness of sports participation: Effects of gender-based schematic processing. Sex Roles, 33, 543–557.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kokko, H., Jennions, M. D., & Brooks, R. (2006). Unifying and testing models of sexual selection. Annual Review of Ecology Evolution and Systematics, 37, 43–66.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kuscsik, N. (1977). The history of women’s participation in the marathon. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 301, 862–876.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kwan, M., & James, L. M. (1998). Michelle Kwan: My story-heart of a champion. New York: Scholastic.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lauriola, M., Zelli, A., Calcaterra, C., Cherubini, D., & Spinelli, D. (2004). Sport gender stereotypes in Italy. International Journal of Sport Psychology, 35, 189–206.

    Google Scholar 

  • Law, M. P., Côté, J., & Ericsson, K. A. (2007). Characteristics of expert development in rhythmic gymnastics: A retrospective study. International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 5, 82–103.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lehre, A. C., Lehre, K. P., Laake, P., & Danbolt, N. C. (2009). Greater intrasex phenotype variability in males than in females is a fundamental aspect of gender differences in humans. Developmental Psychobiology, 51, 198–206.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Liebenberg, L. (2006). Persistence hunting by modern hunter–gatherers. Current Anthropology, 47, 1017–1025.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lieberman, D. E., Bramble, D. M., Raichlen, D. A., & Shea, J. J. (2009). Brains, brawn, and the evolution of human endurance running capabilities. In F. E. Grine & R. E. Leakey (Eds.), The first humans: Origin and early evolution of the genus Homo (pp. 77–92). New York: Springer.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Life-time. (2011). In Association of Road Racing Statisticians. Retrieved April 5, 2011, from http://www.arrs.net/PM_Life.htm.

  • Lippa, R. A. (2009). Sex differences in sex drive, sociosexuality, and height across 53 nations: Testing evolutionary and social structural theories. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 38, 631–651.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lippa, R. A. (2010). Sex differences in personality traits and gender-related occupational preferences across 53 nations: Testing evolutionary and social-environmental theories. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 39, 619–636.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • List of Largest. (2011). In Wikipedia. Retrieved February 4, 2011, from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_largest_running_events.

  • List of Marathons. (2011). In Wikipedia. Retrieved April 11, 2011, from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_marathons.

  • Llaurens, V., Raymond, M., & Faurie, C. (2009). Ritual fights and male reproductive success in a human population. Journal of Evolutionary Biology, 22, 1854–1859.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lombardo, M. (2012). On the evolution of sport. Evolutionary Psychology, 10, 1–28.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Long, J. S. (1992). Measures of sex differences in scientific productivity. Social Forces, 71, 402–410.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lorge, A. (2010). Working for the weekend: Elite runners in this year’s National Marathon Championships who hold down day jobs. Running Times, 381, 45–51.

    Google Scholar 

  • Low, B. S. (1992). Sex, coalitions, and politics in preindustrial societies. Politics and the Life Sciences, 11, 63–80.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lytton, H., & Romney, D. M. (1991). Parents’ differential socialization of boys and girls: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 109, 267–296.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Maass, A., D’Ettole, C., & Cadinu, M. (2008). Checkmate? The role of gender stereotypes in the ultimate intellectual sport. European Journal of Social Psychology, 38, 231–245.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • MacArthur, D. G., & North, K. N. (2005). Genes and human elite athletic performance. Human Genetics, 116, 331–339.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Maccoby, E. E. (1998). The two sexes: Growing up apart, coming together. Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Macera, C. A. (1992). Lower extremity injuries in runners: Advances in prediction. Sports Medicine, 13, 50–57.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Manning, J. T., & Pickup, L. J. (1998). Symmetry and performance in middle distance runners. International Journal of Sports Medicine, 19, 205–209.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Marsh, H. W., Jayasinghe, U. W., & Bond, N. W. (2011). Gender differences in peer reviews of grant applications: A substantive-methodological synergy in support of the null hypothesis model. Journal of Informetrics, 5, 167–180.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mason, M. A., & Goulden, M. (2004). Marriage and baby blues: Redefining gender equity in the academy. Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 596, 86–103.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Masters, K. S., Ogles, B. M., & Jolton, J. A. (1993). The development of an instrument to measure motivation for marathon running: The motivation of marathoners scales (MOMS). Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 64, 134–143.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Matteo, S. (1986). The effect of sex and gender-schematic processing on sport participation. Sex Roles, 15, 417–432.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McIntyre, M. H. (2006). The use of digit ratios as markers for perinatal androgen action. Reproductive Biology and Endocrinology, 4(10). Retrieved from http://www.rbej.com/content/pdf/1477-7827-4-10.pdf. Accessed 4 May 2012.

  • McKelvie, S. J., Valliant, P. M., & Asu, M. E. (1985). Physical training and personality factors as predictors of marathon time and training injury. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 60, 551–566.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Messner, M. A. (2002). Taking the field: Women, men, and sports. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Metzler, B. (2010). On the verge: patience, progression put Brett Gotcher on the fast track after 2:10 debut marathon. Running Times, 377, 50–52.

    Google Scholar 

  • Midgley, A. W., McNaughton, L. R., & Jones, A. M. (2007). Training to enhance the physiological determinants of long-distance running performance? Can valid recommendations be given to runners and coaches based on current scientific knowledge? Sports Medicine, 37, 857–880.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Miller, G. F. (1999). Sexual selection for cultural display. In R. Dunbar, C. Knight, & C. Power (Eds.), The evolution of culture: An interdisciplinary view (pp. 71–91). New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Miller, G. F. (2000). The mating mind: How sexual choice shaped the evolution of human nature. New York: Doubleday.

    Google Scholar 

  • Møller, A. P., & Thornhill, R. (1998). Bilateral symmetry and sexual selection: A meta-analysis. American Naturalist, 151, 174–192.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Møller, A. P., Thornhill, R., & Gangestad, S. W. (2005). Direct and indirect tests for publication bias: Asymmetry and sexual selection. Animal Behaviour, 70, 497–506.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Monsaas, J. A. (1985). Learning to be a world-class tennis player. In B. S. Bloom (Ed.), Developing talent in young people (pp. 211–269). New York: Ballantine.

    Google Scholar 

  • National Federation of State High School Associations. (2010). 2009–10 High school athletics participation survey. Indianapolis, IN: National Federation of State High School Associations.

    Google Scholar 

  • NCAA Research. (2008). Gender equity: 2005–06 NCAA gender-equity report. Indianapolis, IN: National Collegiate Athletic Association.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nettle, D., & Clegg, H. (2006). Schizotypy, creativity and mating success in humans. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, B: Biological Sciences, 273, 611–615.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Noakes, T. (2001). Lore of running (4th ed.). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ogles, B. M., & Masters, K. S. (2000). Older vs. younger adult male marathon runners: Participative motives and training habits. Journal of Sport Behavior, 23, 130–142.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ogles, B. M., & Masters, K. S. (2003). A typology of marathon runners based on cluster analysis of motivations. Journal of Sport Behavior, 26, 69–85.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ogles, B. M., Masters, K. S., & Richardson, S. A. (1995). Obligatory running and gender: An analysis of participative motives and training habits. International Journal of Sports Psychology, 26, 233–248.

    Google Scholar 

  • Olds, T., Tomkinson, G., Leger, L., & Cazorla, G. (2006). Worldwide variation in the performance of children and adolescents: An analysis of 109 studies of the 20-m shuttle run test in 37 countries. Journal of Sports Sciences, 24, 1025–1038.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Olympic Sports. (2011). In Wikipedia. Retrieved April 7, 2011, from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olympic_sports.

  • Pearsall, M. (1950). Klamath childhood and education. Berkeley: University of California Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Phelps, M., & Abrahamson, A. (2009). No limits: The will to succeed. New York: Free Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Prize Money. (2011). In Association of Road Racing Statisticians. Retrieved March 9, 2011, from http://www.arrs.net/PM_ByYr.htm.

  • Puts, D. A. (2010). Beauty and the beast: Mechanisms of sexual selection in humans. Evolution and Human Behavior, 31, 157–175.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Puts, D. A., McDaniel, M. A., Jordan, C. L., & Breedlove, S. M. (2008). Spatial ability and prenatal androgens: Meta-analyses of congenital adrenal hyperplasia and digit ratio (2D:4D) studies. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 37, 100–111.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Putz, D. A., Gaulin, S. J. C., Sporter, R. J., & McBurney, D. H. (2004). Sex hormones and finger length: What does 2D:4D indicate? Evolution and Human Behavior, 25, 182–199.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Qualifying Standards. (n.d.-a). In USA Track & Field. Retrieved from http://www.usatf.org/events/2008/olympictrials-marathon-men/entry/qualifyingstandards.asp. Accessed 4 May 2012.

  • Qualifying Standards. (n.d.-b). In USA Track & Field. Retrieved from http://www.usatf.org/events/2008/olympictrials-marathon-women/entry/qualifyingstandards.asp. Accessed 4 May 2012.

  • Ransdell, L. B., Vener, J., & Huberty, J. (2009). Masters athletes: An analysis of running, swimming and cycling performance by age and gender. Journal of Exercise Science & Fitness, 7, S61–S73.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Retton, M. L., Karolyi, B., & Powers, J. (1986). Mary Lou: Creating an Olympic champion. New York: Dell Publishing Company.

    Google Scholar 

  • Robbins, L. (2009). Inspiration for a new crop of U.S. Runners. New York Times. Retrieved Nov 1, 2009, from http://www.nytimes.com/2009/11/02/sports/02robbins.html. Accessed 4 May 2012.

  • Roberts, S. C., & Little, A. C. (2008). Good genes, complementary genes and human mate preferences. Genetica, 132, 309–321.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ronay, R., & von Hippel, W. (2010). The presence of an attractive woman elevates testosterone and physical risk taking in young men. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 1, 57–64.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Running USA’s State of the Sport 2010—Part I. (2010). In Running USA. Retrieved April 11, 2010, from http://www.runningusa.org/node/57852.

  • Running USA’s State of the Sport 2010–Part III. (2010). In Running USA. Retrieved August 4, 2010, from http://www.runningusa.org/node/57770#58551.

  • Russ, J. (1983). How to suppress women’s writing. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sandrock, M. (1996). Running with the legends: Training and racing insights from 21 great runners. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schmitt, D. P. (2005). Sociosexuality from Argentina to Zimbabwe: A 48-nation study of sex, culture, and strategies of human mating. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 28, 247–311.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schmitt, D. P., & Buss, D. M. (1996). Strategic self-promotion and competitor derogation: Sex and context effects on the perceived effectiveness of mate attraction tactics. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 70, 1185–1204.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schmitt, D. P., Realo, A., Voracek, M., & Allik, J. (2008). Why can’t a man be more like a woman? Sex differences in big five personality traits across 55 cultures. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 94, 168–182.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sears, E. S. (2001). Running through the ages. London: McFarland & Company.

    Google Scholar 

  • Seiler, S., De Koning, J. J., & Foster, C. (2007). The fall and rise of the gender difference in elite anaerobic performance 1952–2006. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 39, 534–540.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Shephard, R. J. (2000). Exercise and training in women: Part I. Influence of gender on exercise and training responses. Canadian Journal of Applied Physiology, 25, 19–34.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Shulman, J. L., & Bowen, W. G. (2001). The game of life: College sports and educational values. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Skinner, J. S., Jaskolski, A, Jaskolska, A., Krasnoff, J., Gagnon, J., Leon, A. S., … Bouchard, C. (2001). Age, sex, race, initial fitness, and response to training: The HERITAGE Family Study. Journal of Applied Physiology, 90, 1770–1776.

  • Slovic, P. (1977). Empirical study of training and performance in the marathon. Research Quarterly, 48, 769–777.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sohi, A. S., & Yusuff, K. B. (1987). The socioeconomic status of elite Nigerian athletes in perspective of social stratification and mobility. International Review for the Sociology of Sport, 22, 295–303.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sparling, P. B., O'Donnell, E. M., & Snow, T. K. (1998). The gender difference in distance running performance has plateaued: An analysis of world rankings from 1980 to 1996. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 30, 1725–1729.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Spelke, E. S. (2005). Sex differences in intrinsic aptitude for mathematics and science? A critical review. American Psychologist, 62, 950–958.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Spence, J. T., & Helmreich, R. L. (1983). Achievement-related motives and behaviors. In J. T. Spence (Ed.) Achievement and achievement motives: Psychological and sociological approaches (pp. 10–74). San Francisco: W. H. Freeman.

  • Stark, R. (2010). Holding out: Stephen Haas extends his running career with leap to the marathon. Running Times, 377, 46–47.

    Google Scholar 

  • Statistics. (n.d.). In Running USA. Retrieved from http://www.runningusa.org/statistics. Accessed 4 May 2012.

  • Stevenson, B. (2007). Title IX and the evolution of high school sports. Contemporary Economic Policy, 25, 486–505.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Su, R., Rounds, J., & Armstrong, P. I. (2009). Men and things, women and people: A meta-analysis of sex differences in interests. Psychological Bulletin, 135, 859–884.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Suggs, W. (2005). A place on the team: The triumph and tragedy of Title IX. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Swaddle, J. P. (2003). Fluctuating asymmetry, animal behavior, and evolution. Advances in the Study of Behavior, 3, 169–205.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Swimming at the 1972. (2011). In Wikipedia. Retrieved February 2, 2011, from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swimming_at_the_1972_Summer_Olympics.

  • Swimming at the 2008. (2011). In Wikipedia. Retrieved February 2, 2011, from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swimming_at_the_2008_Summer_Olympics.

  • Tanaka, H., & Seals, D. R. (2003). Invited Review: Dynamic exercise performance in masters athletes: Insight into the effects of primary human aging on physiological functional capacity. Journal of Applied Physiology, 95, 2152–2162.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Taylor, S. E., Klein, L. C., Lewis, B. P., Gruenewald, T. L., Gurung, R. A. R., & Updegraff, J. A. (2000). Biobehavioral responses to stress in females: Tend and befriend, not fight-or-flight. Psychological Review, 107, 411–429.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • The XXIX Olympic Games. (2008). In IAAF. Retrieved February 5, 2008, from http://www.iaaf.org/oly08/standards/index.html.

  • Tjelta, L. I., & Enoksen, E. (2010). Training characteristics of male junior cross country and track runners on European top level. International Journal of Sports Science & Coaching, 5, 193–203.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tomkinson, G. R., Popovic, N., & Martin, M. (2003). Bilateral symmetry and the competitive standard attained in elite and sub-elite sport. Journal of Sports Sciences, 21, 201–211.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Track & Field News Lists. (n.d.). In Track & Field News. Retrieved from http://www.trackandfieldnews.com/index.php/lists.

  • United States Commission on Civil Rights. (1980). More hurdles to clear: Women and girls in competitive athletics (Clearinghouse Publication Number 63). Washington, DC: Commission on Civil Rights.

  • USA Top Marks Lists. (n.d.). In USA Track & Field. Retrieved from http://www.usatf.org/Stats/Top-Marks-Lists.aspx. Accessed 4 May 2012.

  • U.S. Department of Education. (2003). Open to all: Title IX at thirty. Washington, DC: Department of Education, Secretary’s Commission for Opportunity in Athletics.

    Google Scholar 

  • van Gent, R. N., Siem, D., van Middelkoop, M., van Os, A. G., Bierma-Zeinstra, S. M. A., Koes, B. W., et al. (2007). Incidence and determinants of lower extremity running injuries in long distance runners: A systematic review. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 41, 469–480.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • van Mechelen, W. (1992). Running injuries: A review of the epidemiological literature. Sports Medicine, 14, 320–355.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Warburton, D. E. R., Nicol, C. W., & Bredin, S. S. D. (2006). Health benefits of physical activity: The evidence. Canadian Medical Association Journal, 174, 801–809.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Williams, P. T. (1998). Relationships of heart disease risk factors to exercise quantity and intensity. Archives of Internal Medicine, 158, 237–245.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Xie, Y., & Shauman, K. A. (2003). Women in science: Career processes and outcomes. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Young, B. W., & Salmela, J. H. (2010). Examination of practice activities related to the acquisition of elite performance in Canadian middle distance running. International Journal of Sport Psychology, 41, 73–90.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ziegler, A., Kentenich, H., & Uchanska-Ziegier, B. (2005). Female choice and the MHC. Trends in Immunology, 26, 496–502.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zimbalist, A. (1999). Unpaid professionals: Commercialism and conflict in big-time college sports. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

For comments on previous versions of this article, I thank the Editor, three anonymous reviewers, Bernd Frick, Kristen Hawkes, Sarah Hrdy, Mike Lombardo, Aaron Lowen, Kevin R. Peters, Andrew Portinga, Ben Winegard, and Shannon Zentall.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Robert O. Deaner.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Deaner, R.O. Distance Running as an Ideal Domain for Showing a Sex Difference in Competitiveness. Arch Sex Behav 42, 413–428 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-012-9965-z

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Revised:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-012-9965-z

Keywords

Navigation