Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

The School Assessment for Environmental Typology (SAfETy): An Observational Measure of the School Environment

  • Original Article
  • Published:
American Journal of Community Psychology

Abstract

School safety is of great concern for prevention researchers, school officials, parents, and students, yet there are a dearth of assessments that have operationalized school safety from an organizational framework using objective tools and measures. Such a tool would be important for deriving unbiased assessments of the school environment, which in turn could be used as an evaluative tool for school violence prevention efforts. The current paper presents a framework for conceptualizing school safety consistent with Crime Prevention through Environmental Design (CPTED) model and social disorganization theory, both of which highlight the importance of context as a driver for adolescents’ risk for involvement in substance use and violence. This paper describes the development of a novel observational measure, called the School Assessment for Environmental Typology (SAfETy), which applies CPTED and social disorganizational frameworks to schools to measure eight indicators of school physical and social environment (i.e., disorder, trash, graffiti/vandalism, appearance, illumination, surveillance, ownership, and positive behavioral expectations). Drawing upon data from 58 high schools, we provide preliminary data regarding the validity and reliability of the SAfETy and describe patterns of the school safety indicators. Findings demonstrate the reliability and validity of the SAfETy and are discussed with regard to the prevention of violence in schools.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Astor, R. A., & Meyer, H. A. (2001). The conceptualization of violence-prone school subcontexts: Is the sum of the parts greater than the whole? Urban Education, 36(3), 374–399.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Astor, R. A., Meyer, H. A., & Behre, W. J. (1999). Unowned places and times: Maps and interviews about violence in high schools. American Educational Research Journal, 36(1), 3–42.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Astor, R. A., Meyer, H. A., & Pitner, R. O. (2001). Elementary and middle school students’ perceptions of violence-prone school subcontexts. The Elementary School Journal, 101(5), 511–528.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Barlow, D. H., & Hersen, M. (1984). Single-case experimental designs: Strategies for studying behavior change (2nd ed.). New York: Pergamon Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bentler, P. M., & Bonnett, P. G. (1980). Significance tests and goodness of fit in the analysis of covariance structures. Psychological Bulletin, 88(3), 588–606.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Beyers, J. M., Bates, J. E., Pettit, G. S., & Dodge, K. A. (2003). Neighborhood structure, parenting processes, and the development of youths’ externalizing behaviors: A multilevel analysis. American Journal of Community Psychology, 31(1–2), 35–53.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Birnbaum, A. S., Lytle, L. A., Hannan, P. J., Murray, D. M., Perry, C. L., & Forester, J. L. (2003). School functioning and violent behavior among young adolescents: A contextual analysis. Health Education Research, 18(3), 389–403.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Boardman, J. D., Finch, B. K., Ellison, C. G., Williams, D. R., & Jackson, J. S. (2001). Neighborhood disadvantage, stress, and drug use among adults. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 42(2), 151–165.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bosch, S. F. (2006). Research priorities: How facilities affect learning outcomes. In C. K. Tanner & J. A. Lackney (Eds.), Educational facilities planning: Leadership, architecture and management (pp. 323–347). Boston: Pearson Education.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bradshaw, C. P., Sawyer, A. L., & O’Brennan, L. M. (2007). Bullying and peer victimization at school: Perceptual differences between students and school staff. School Psychology Review, 36(3), 361–382.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bradshaw, C. P., Waasdorp, T. E., Debnam, K. J., & Lindstrom Johnson, S. (2014). Measuring school climate: A focus on safety, engagement, and the environment. Journal of School Health, 84, 593–604. doi:10.1111/josh.12186.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brantingham, P. L., & Brantingham, P. J. (1981). Environmental criminology. Beverly Hills: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cisneros, H. G. (1995). Defensible space: Deterring crime and building community. Washington: U.S. Department of Housing and Human Development.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cohen, D. A., Mason, K., Bedimo, A., Scribner, R., Basolo, V., & Farley, T. A. (2003). Neighborhood physical conditions and health. American Journal of Public Health, 93(3), 467–471.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Crowe, T. D. (1991). Crime prevention through environmental design: Applications of architectural design and space management concepts. Louisville: National Crime Prevention Institute.

    Google Scholar 

  • Environmental Protection Agency. (2012). Healthy School Environments Assessment Tool (HealthySEAT). Retrieved from http://www.epa.gov/schools/healthyseat/

  • Furr-Holden, C. D. M., Campbell, K. D. M., Milam, A. J., Smart, M. J., Ialongo, N. A., & Leaf, P. J. (2010). Metric properties of the neighborhood inventory for environmental typology (NIfETy): An environmental assessment tool for measuring indicators of violence, alcohol, tobacco, and other drug exposures. Evaluation Review, 34(3), 159–184.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Furr-Holden, C. D. M., Lee, M. H., Milam, A. J., Johnson, R. M., Lee, K. S., & Ialongo, N. S. (2011a). The growth of neighborhood disorder and marijuana use among urban adolescents: A case for policy and environmental interventions. Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs, 72(3), 371.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Furr-Holden, C. D. M., Milam, A. J., Reynolds, E. K., MacPherson, L., & Lejuez, C. W. (2011b). Exposure to hazardous neighborhood environments in late childhood and anxiety. Journal of Community Psychology, 39(7), 876–883.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Furr-Holden, C. D. M., Milam, A. J., Reynolds, E. K., MacPherson, L., & Lejuez, C. W. (2012). Disordered neighborhood environments and risk-taking propensity in late childhood through adolescence. Journal of Adolescent Health, 50(1), 100–102.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Furr-Holden, C. D. M., Smart, M. J., Pokorni, J. L., Ialongo, N. S., Leaf, P. J., Holder, H. D., & Anthony, J. C. (2008). The NIfETy method for environmental assessment of neighborhood-level indicators of violence, alcohol, and other drug exposure. Prevention Science, 9(4), 245–255.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gregory, A., Cornell, D., & Fan, X. (2011). The relationship of school structure and support to suspension rates for Black and White high school students. American Educational Research Journal, 48(4), 904–934.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hu, L., & Bentler, H. M. (1999). Cut-off criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling: A MultiDisciplinary Journal, 6(1), 1–55.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kitsantas, A., Ware, H. W., & Martinez-Arias, R. (2004). Students’ perceptions of school safety: Effects by community, school environment, and substance use variables. The Journal of Early Adolescence, 24(4), 412–430.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Koth, C. W., Bradshaw, C. P., & Leaf, P. J. (2008). A multilevel study of predictors of student perceptions of school climate: The effect of classroom-level factors. Journal of Educational Psychology, 100(1), 96–104.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Leventhal, T., & Brooks-Gunn, J. (2000). The neighborhoods they live in: The effects of neighborhood residence on child and adolescent outcomes. Psychological Bulletin, 126(2), 309–337.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mair, J. S., & Mair, M. (2003). Violence prevention and control through environmental modifications. Annual Review of Public Health, 24(1), 209.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mayer, M. J., & Leone, P. E. (1999). A structural analysis of school violence and disruption: Implications for creating safer schools. Education & Treatment of Children, 22(3), 333–356.

    Google Scholar 

  • Milam, A., Furr-Holden, D., Cooley-Strickland, M., Bradshaw, C. P., & Leaf, P. (2014). Risk for exposure to alcohol, tobacco, and other drugs on the route to and from school: The role of alcohol outlets. Prevention Science, 15(1), 12–21. doi:10.1007/s10964-012-9843-y.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Milam, A. J., Furr-Holden, C. D. M., & Leaf, P. J. (2010). Perceived school and neighborhood safety, neighborhood violence and academic achievement in urban school children. The Urban Review, 42(5), 458–467.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Muthén, L. K., & Muthén, B. O. (1998–2012). Mplus user’s guide (7th ed.). Los Angeles: Muthén & Muthén.

  • Newman, O. (1972). Defensible space: Crime prevention through urban design. New York: Macmillan.

    Google Scholar 

  • Newman, O. (1995). Defensible space: A new physical planning tool for urban revitalization. Journal of the American Planning Association, 61(2), 149–155.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Newman, O. (1996). Creating defensible space. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nunnally, J. C. (1978). Psychometric theory (2nd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.

    Google Scholar 

  • Plank, S. B., Bradshaw, C. P., & Young, H. (2009). An application of “Broken-windows” and related theories to the study of disorder, fear, and collective efficacy in schools. American Journal of Education, 115(2), 227–247.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sampson, R. J., & Groves, W. B. (1989). Community structure and crime: Testing social-disorganization theory. American Journal of Sociology, 94(4), 774. doi:10.1086/229068.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Samspon, R. J., & Raudenbush, S. W. (1999). Systematic social observation of public spaces: A new look at disorder in urban neighborhoods. American Journal of Sociology, 105(3), 603–651.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sampson, R. J., Raudenbush, S. W., & Earls, F. (1997). Neighborhoods and violent crime: A multilevel study of collective efficacy. Science, 277(5328), 918–924.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schmitt, N. (1996). Uses and abuses of coefficient alpha. Psychological Assessment, 8(4), 350.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shaw, C. R., & McKay, H. D. (1969). Juvenile delinquency and urban areas (rev ed.). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Uline, C., & Tschannen-Moran, M. (2008). The walls speak: The interplay of quality facilities, school climate, and student achievement. Journal of Educational Administration, 46(1), 56–73.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Van Dorn, R. A. (2004). Correlates of violent and nonviolent victimization in a sample of public high school students. Violence and Victims, 19(3), 303–320.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wallis, A., & Ford, D. (1981). Crime prevention through environmental design: The school demonstration in Broward County, Florida: Executive summary. Washington, DC: US Department of Justice, National Institute of Justice.

    Google Scholar 

  • Westinghouse Electric. (1977a). Crime prevention through environmental design. CPTED program manual, Vol. 1: Planning and implementation manual. Arlington: Westinghouse Electric.

  • Westinghouse Electric. (1977b). Crime prevention through environmental design. CPTED program manual, Vol. 2: Strategies and directives manual. Arlington: Westinghouse Electric.

  • Wilcox, P., Augustine, M. C., & Clayton, R. R. (2006). Physical environment and crime and misconduct in Kentucky schools. Journal of Primary Prevention, 27(3), 293–313.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

Support for this project comes from the U.S. Department of Education, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, and the William T. Grant Foundation.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Curry School of Education, University of Virginia, 112-D Bavaro Hall, 417 Emmet Street South, PO Box 400260, Charlottesville, VA, 22904-4260, USA

    Catherine P. Bradshaw

  2. Johns Hopkins Center for the Prevention of Youth Violence, Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD, USA

    Catherine P. Bradshaw, Adam J. Milam & C. Debra M. Furr-Holden

  3. Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA

    Sarah Lindstrom Johnson

Authors
  1. Catherine P. Bradshaw
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Adam J. Milam
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. C. Debra M. Furr-Holden
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Sarah Lindstrom Johnson
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Catherine P. Bradshaw.

Ethics declarations

Conflict of interest

The authors do not have any conflicts that would influence the findings.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Bradshaw, C.P., Milam, A.J., Furr-Holden, C.D.M. et al. The School Assessment for Environmental Typology (SAfETy): An Observational Measure of the School Environment. Am J Community Psychol 56, 280–292 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10464-015-9743-x

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10464-015-9743-x

Keywords

Search

Navigation