Skip to main content

Advertisement

Log in

Exploring the causes of high biodiversity of Iberian dehesas: the importance of wood pastures and marginal habitats

  • Published:
Agroforestry Systems Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

In extensive low input farming and in agroforestry systems, the importance for biodiversity of managed productive fields with respect to unmanaged marginal habitats that occupy a low proportion of farm surface, is still poorly understood, contrasting with the well-known key importance of marginal habitats in intensive systems. We analyzed the importance of open and wood pastures and marginal habitats for species richness of Iberian dehesas in Central-Western Spain. We sampled 155 plots classified into 9 general habitat categories: wood pastures (n = 41 plots); open pastures dominated by annual plants (n = 11), by perennial plants (n = 15) and co-dominated by annuals and perennial plants (n = 16); shrublands (n = 19); agricultural crops (n = 12); herbaceous strips (n = 10); woody strips (n = 11); and water bodies (n = 10). In each plot we measured the abundance and species richness of four taxonomic groups: vascular plants, bees, spiders, and earthworms. We detected 431 plant species (37 ± 2.5 CI95 in 100 m2 on average), 60 bee species (3.1 ± 1.1 in 600 m2), 128 spider species (7.4 ± 1.2 in 1.5 m2) and 18 earthworm species (2.5 ± 1.0 in 0.27 m2) in 145 sampling plots. Wood pastures supported fewer species of spiders and earthworms at the plot level, but more plants and earthworm species at the landscape level than open pastures. The low proportion of shared species among habitats and among plots within each habitat type, and the high proportion of species found in unique plots or habitats indicated that every habitat contributes to farm biodiversity. Overall, our extensive survey confirms the hypothesis that the high diversity of dehesas depends on the coexistence within farms of a wide mosaic of habitats, including marginal habitats, which seemed to harbor a disproportionately high number of species as compared to their small extent. Results support policy measures for the maintenance of farm keystone structures such as linear features, small wood/shrub patches and ponds, and reveal that these measures should not be exclusively applied to more intensive farming systems.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Azcárate FM, Sánchez AM, Arqueros L, Peco B (2002) Abundance and habitat segregation in Mediterranean grassland species: the importance of seed weight. J Veg Sci 13:159–166

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Batáry P, Báldi A, Kleijn D, Tscharntke T (2011) Landscape-moderated biodiversity effects of agri-environmental management: a meta-analysis. Proc R Soc B Biol Sci 278:1894–1902

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bengtsson J, Ahnström J, Weibull A-C (2005) The effects of organic agriculture on biodiversity and abundance: a meta-analysis. J Appl Ecol 42:261–269

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Benton TG, Vickery JA, Wilson JD (2003) Farmland biodiversity: is habitat heterogeneity the key? Trends Ecol Evol 18:182–188

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Berger G, Pfeffer H, Kächele H, Andreas S, Hoffmann J (2003) Nature protection in agricultural landscapes by setting aside unproductive areas and ecotones within arable fields (‘Infield Nature Protection Spots’). J Nat Conserv 11:221–233

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bergmeier E, Petermann J, Schröder E (2010) Geobotanical survey of wood-pasture habitats in Europe: diversity, threats and conservation. Biodivers Conserv 19:2995–3014

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Blondel J, Aronson J, Boudiou JY, Bœuf G (2010) The Mediterranean Basin—biological diversity in space and time. Oxford University Press, Oxford

    Google Scholar 

  • Boller EF, Häni F, Poehling H-M (2004) Ecological infrastructures: ideabook on functional biodiversity at the farm level. Agridea, Lindau

    Google Scholar 

  • Bugalho MN, Caldeira MC, Pereira JS, Aronson JA, Pausas J (2011) Mediterranean oak savannas requirehuman use to sustain biodiversity and ecosystem services. Front Ecol Environ 5:278–286

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bunce RGH, Bogers MMB, Roche P, Walczak M, Geijzendorffer IR, Jongman RHG (2011) Manual for habitat and vegetation surveillance and monitoring. Alterra report 2154. Alterra, Wageningen

  • Burgess PJ (1999) Effects of agroforestry on farm biodiversity in the UK. Scott For 53:24–27

    Google Scholar 

  • Calama R, Tomé M, Sánchez-González M, Miina J, Spanos K, Palahi M (2010) Modelling non-wood forest products in Europe: a review. For Syst 19:69–85

    Google Scholar 

  • Campos P, Huntsinger L, Oviedo JL, Starrs PF, Díaz M, Standiford RB, Montero G (eds) (2013) Mediterranean Oak Woodland Working Landscapes. Dehesas of Spain and Ranchlands of California, vol 16., Landscape SeriesSpringer, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Carrete M, Donázar JA (2005) Application of central-place foraging theory shows the importance of Mediterranean dehesas for the conservation of the cinereous vulture, Aegypius monachus. Biol Conserv 126:582–590

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chao A (2005) Species richness estimation. In: Balakrishnan N, Read CB, Vidakovic B (eds) Encyclopedia of statistical sciences. Wiley, New York, pp 7909–7916

    Google Scholar 

  • Chao A, Chazdon RL, Colwell RK, Shen T-J (2005) A new statistical approach for assessing compositional similarity based on incidence and abundance data. Ecol Lett 8:148–159

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Coleman BD, Mares MA, Willig MR, Hsieh Y-H (1982) Randomness, area, and species richness. Ecology 63:1121–1133

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Colwell RK (2013) EstimateS: statistical estimation of species richness and shared species from samples. Version 9. User’s Guide and application published. http://www.purl.oclc.org/estimates. Accessed 2 Jan 2014

  • Colwell RK, Coddington JA (1994) Estimating terrestrial biodiversity through extrapolation. Philos Trans R Soc (Ser B) 345:101–118

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Colwell RK, Chao A, Gotelli NJ, Lin S-Y, Mao CX, Chazdon RL, Longino JT (2012) Models and estimators linking individual-based and sample-based rarefaction, extrapolation, and comparison of assemblages. J Plant Ecol 5:3–21

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Concepción ED, Díaz M, Baquero RA (2008) Effects of landscape complexity on the ecological effectiveness of agri-environment schemes. Landscape Ecol 23:135–148

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Concepción ED, Díaz M, Kleijn D, Báldi A, Batáry P, Clough Y, Gabriel D, Herzog F, Holzschuh A, Knop E, Marshall JP, Tscharntke T, Verhulst J (2012) Interactive effects of landscape context constrain the effectiveness of local agri-environmental management. J Appl Ecol 49:695–705

    Google Scholar 

  • Costa D, Timmermans MJTN, Sousa JP, Ribeiro R, Roelofs D, Van Straalen NM (2013) Genetic structure of soil invertebrate populations: collembolans, earthworms and isopods. Appl Soil Ecol 68:61–66

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Crawley MJ, Harral JE (2001) Scale dependence in plant biodiversity. Science 291:864–868

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cubera E, Moreno G (2007a) Effect of single Quercus ilex trees upon spatial and seasonal changes in soil water content in Dehesas of central western Spain. Ann For Sci 64:355–364

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cubera E, Moreno G (2007b) Effect of Land use on soil water dynamic in dehesas of central-western Spain. Catena 71:298–308

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cuthbertson A, McAdam J (1996) The effect of tree density and species on carabid beetles in a range of pasture-tree agroforestry systems on a lowland site. Agrofor Forum 7:17–20

    Google Scholar 

  • Dennis P, Shellard LJF, Agnew RDM (1996) Shifts in arthropod species assemblages in relation to silvopastoral establishment in upland pastures. Agrofor Forum 7:14–17

    Google Scholar 

  • Dennis P, Bogers MMB, Bunce RGH, Herzog F, Jeanneret P (2012) Biodiversity in organic and low-input farming systems. Handbook for recording key indicators. Alterra report 2308. Alterra, Wageningen

  • Díaz M, Campos P, Pulido FJ (1997) The Spanish dehesas: a diversity of land use and wildlife. In: Pain D, Pienkowski M (eds) Farming and birds in Europe: the common agricultural policy and its implications for bird conservation. Academic Press, London

    Google Scholar 

  • Díaz M, Tietje MD, Barrett RH (2013) Effects of management on biological diversity and endangered species. In: Campos P, Huntsinger L, Oviedo JL, Starrs PF, Díaz M, Standiford RB, Montero G (eds) Mediterranean oak woodland working landscapes. Dehesas of Spain and ranchlands of California. series: landscape series, vol 16. Springer, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Doré T, Makowski D, Malézieux E, Munier-Jolain N, Tchamitchian M, Tittonell P (2011) Facing up to the paradigm of ecological intensification in agronomy: revisiting methods, concepts and knowledge. Eur J Agron 34:197–210

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • EC (2005) Agri-environment Measures. Overview on general principles, types of measures, and application. European Commission, Directorate General for Agriculture and Rural Development. Unit G-4—evaluation of measures applied to agriculture, studies http://www.ec.europa.eu/agriculture/publi/reports/agrienv/rep_en.pdf. Accessed 01 Nov 2014

  • EEA (2010) Corine land cover 2006 inventory. On-line dataset, version 13 (02/2010)—coordination of information on the environment, European Environment Agency. http://www.eea.europa.eu/data-and-maps/data/corine-land-cover-2006-raster. Accessed March 2010

  • EEC (1992) Council Directive 92/43/EEC of 21 May 1992 on the conservation of natural habitats and of wild fauna and flora. http://www.ec.europa.eu/environment/nature/legislation/habitatsdirective/index_en.htm. Accessed 02 Nov 2014

  • Fahrig L, Baudry J, Brotons L, Burel FG, Crist TO, Fuller RJ, Sirami C, Siriwardena GM, Martin J-L (2011) Functional landscape heterogeneity and animal biodiversity in agricultural landscapes. Ecol Lett 14:101–112

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fischer J, Stott J, Law BS (2010) The disproportionate value of paddock trees. Biol Conserv 143:1564–1567

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Flohre A, Fischer C, Aavik T, Bengtsson J, Berendse F, Bommarco R, Ceryngier P, Clement LW, Dennis C, Eggers S, Emmerson M, Geiger F, Guerrero I, Hawro V, Inchausti P, Liira J, Morales MB, Oñate JJ, Pärt T, Weisser WW, Winqvist C, Thies C, Tscharntke T (2011) Agricultural intensification and biodiversity partitioning in European landscapes comparing plants, carabids, and birds. Ecol Appl 21:1772–1781

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gabriel D, Sait SM, Kunin WE, Benton TG (2013) Food production vs. biodiversity: comparing organic and conventional agriculture. J Appl Ecol 50:355–364

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gallardo A, Rodríguez-Saucedo JJ, Covelo F, Fernández-Alés R (2000) Soil nitrogen heterogeneity in a dehesa ecosystem. Plant Soil 222:71–82

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gaston KJ (2000) Global patterns in biodiversity. Science 405:220–227

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gibbons P, Lindenmayer DB, Fisher J, Manning AD, Weinberg A, Seddon J, Ryan P, Barrett G (2008) The future of scattered trees in agricultural landscapes. Conserv Biol 22:1309–1319

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gillet F, Murisier B, Buttler A, Gallandat J-D, Gobat J-M (1999) Influence of tree cover on the diversity of herbaceous communities in subalpine wooded pastures. Appl Veg Sci 2:47–54

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Green RE, Cornell SJ, Scharlemann JPW, Balmford A (2005) Farming and the fate of wild nature. Science 307:550–555

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Herzog F, Jeanneret P, Ammari Y, Angelova S, Arndorfer M, Bailey D, Balázs K, Báldi A, Bogers M, Bunce RGH, Choisis J-P, Cuming D, Dennis P, Dyman T, Eiter S, Elek Z, Falusi E, Fjellstad W,  Frank T, Friedel JK, Garchi S, Geijzendorffer IR, Gomiero T, Jerkovich G, Jongman RHG, Kainz M, Kakudidi E, Kelemen E, Kölliker R, Kwikiriza N, Kovács-Hostyánszki A, Last L, Lüscher G, Moreno G, Nkwiine C, Opio J, Oschatz M-L, Paoletti MG, Penksza K, Pointereau P, Riedel S, Sarthou J-P, Schneider MK, Siebrecht N, Sommaggio D, Stoyanova S, Szerencsits E, Szalkovski O, Targetti S, Viaggi D, Wilkes-Allemann J, Wolfrum S, Yashchenko S, Zanetti T (2013) Measuring farmland biodiversity. Solutions 4:52–58

  • Hole DG, Perkins AJ, Wilson JD, Alexander IH, Grice PV, Evans AD (2005) Does organic farming benefit biodiversity? Biol Conserv 122:113–130

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jiménez JJ, Decaëns T, Amezquita E, Rao I, Thomas RJ, Lavelle P (2011) Short range spatial variability of soil physico-chemical variables related to earthworm clustering in a neotropical gallery forest. Soil Biol Biochem 43:1071–1080

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jose S (2012) Agroforestry for conserving and enhancing biodiversity. Agrofor Syst 85:1–8

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kleijn D, Baldi A (2005) Effects of set-aside land on farmland biodiversity: comments on Van Buskirk and Willi. Conserv Biol 19:963–966

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kleijn D, Sutherland WJ (2003) How effective are European agri-environment schemes in conserving and promoting biodiversity? J Appl Ecol 40:947–969

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kleijn D, Kohler F, Báldi A, Batáry P, Concepción ED, Clough Y, Díaz M, Gabriel D, Holzschuh A, Knop E, Kovács A, Marshall EJP, Tscharntke T, Verhulst J (2008) On the relationship between farmland biodiversity and land-use intensity in Europe. Proc R Soc B 276:903–909

    Article  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Kleijn D, Rundlöf M, Scheper J, Smith HG, Tscharntke T (2011) Does Conservation on farmland contribute to halting the biodiversity decline? Trends Ecol Evol 26:474–481

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kristensen P (2003) EEA core set of indicator. Revised version April, 2003. European Environment Agency, Copenhagen

  • Maestre F, Cortina J (2002) Spatial patterns of surface soil properties and vegetation in a Mediterranean semi-arid steppe. Plant Soil 241:279–291

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Manning AD, Fischer J, Lindenmayer DB (2006) Scattered trees are keystone structures—implications for conservation. Biol Conserv 132:311–321

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Marañón T (1986) Plant species richness and canopy effect in the savanna-like “dehesa” of S.W. Spain. Ecol Mediterr 12:131–141

    Google Scholar 

  • Marañón T, Pugnaire FI, Callaway RM (2009) Mediterranean-climate oak savannas: the interplay between abiotic environment and species interactions. Web Ecol 9:30–43

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Martín J, López P (2002) The effect of Mediterranean dehesa management on lizard distribution and conservation. Biol Conserv 108:213–219

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mills LS, Soule ME, Doak DF (1993) The keystone species concept in ecology and conservation. Bioscience 43:219–224

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Miyashita T, Chishiki Y, Takagi SR (2012) Landscape heterogeneity at multiple spatial scales enhances spider species richness in an agricultural landscape. Popul Ecol 54:573–581

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Moreno G, Obrador-Olán JJ (2007) Effects of trees and understorey management on soil fertility and nutritional status of holm oaks in Spanish dehesas. Nutr Cycl Agroecosyst 78:253–264

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Moreno G, Pulido FJ (2009) The functioning, management, and persistente of dehesas. In: Riguero-Rodriguez A, Mosquera-Losada MR, McAdam J (eds) Agroforestry systems in Europe. Current status and future prospects. Advances in agroforestry series. Springer, New York, pp 127–161

    Google Scholar 

  • Moreno G, Bartolome JW, Gea-Izquierdo G, Cañellas I (2013) Overstory-understory relationships. In: Campos P, Huntsinger L, Oviedo JL, Starrs PF, Díaz M, Standiford RB, Montero G (eds) Mediterranean oak woodland working landscapes. Dehesas of Spain and ranchlands of California, vol 16., Series: landscape seriesSpringer, New York, pp 145–180

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Myers et al (2000) Biodiversity hotspots for conservation priorities. Nature 403:853–858

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Opermmann R, Beaufoy G, Jones G (2012) High nature value farming in Europe. 35 European countries—experiences and perspectives. Verlag regionanlkultur, Germany

  • Papanastasis VP (2004) Vegetation degradation and land use changes in agrosilvopastoral systems. In: Schnabel S, Ferreira A (eds) Sustainability of agrosilvopastoral systems. Advances in GeoEcology, vol 37. Catena Verlag, Reiskirchen, pp 1–12

    Google Scholar 

  • Paracchini ML, Petersen J-E, Hoogeveen Y, Bamps C, Burfield I, van Swaay C (2008) High nature value farmland in Europe—an estimate of the distribution patterns on the basis of land cover and biodiversity data. Report EUR 23480, European Environmental Agency, ISPRA, Italy

  • Pavlíček T, Csuzdi C, Smooha G, Beiles A, Nevo E (1996) Biodiversity and microhabitat distribution of earthworms at “Evolution Canyon”, a Mediterranean microsite, Mount Carmel, Israel. Isr J Zool 42:449–454

    Google Scholar 

  • Petz K, van Oudenhoven APE (2012) Modelling land management effect on ecosystem functions and services: a study in the Netherlands. Int J Biodivers Sci Ecosyst Serv Manag 8:135–155

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pinto-Correia T (2000) Future Development in Portuguese Rural Areas: how to manage agricultural support for landscape conservation? Landsc Urb Plan 50:95–106

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Plieninger T, Wilbrand C (2001) Land use, biodiversity conservation, and rural development in the dehesas of Cuatro Lugares, Spain. Agrofor Syst 51:23–34

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Potts SG, Biesmeijer JC, Kremen C, Neumann P, Schweiger O, Kunin WE (2010) Global pollinator declines: trends, impacts and drivers. Trends Ecol Evol 25:345–353

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Primdahl J, Peco B, Schramek J, Andersen E, Onate JJ (2003) Environmental effects of agri-environmental schemes in Western Europe. J Environ Manag 67:129–138

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pulido F, García E, Obrador JJ, Moreno G (2010) Multiple pathways for tree regeneration in anthropogenic savannas: incorporating biotic and abiotic drivers into management schemes. J Appl Ecol 47:1272–1281

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ramírez JA, Díaz M (2008) The role of temporal shrub encroachment for the maintenance of Spanish holm oak Quercus ilex dehesas. For Ecol Manage 255:1976–1983

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rolo V, Plieninger T, Moreno G (2013) Facilitation of holm oak recruitment through two contrasted shrubs species in Mediterranean grazed woodlands: patterns and processes. J Veg Sci 24:344–355

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tews J, Brose U, Grimm V, Tielbörger K, Wichmann MC, Schwager M, Jeltsch F (2004) Animal species diversity driven by habitat heterogeneity/diversity: the importance of keystone structures. J Biogeogr 31:79–92

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tscharntke T, Klein AM, Kruess A, Steffan-Dewenter I, Thies C (2005) Landscape perspectives on agricultural intensification and biodiversity-ecosystem service management. Ecol Lett 8:857–874

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tscharntke T, Tylianakis JM, Rand TA, Didham RK, Fahrig L, Batáry P, Bengtsson J, Clough Y, Crist TO, Dormann CF, Ewers RW, Fründ J, Holt RD, Holzschuh A, Klein AM, Kleijn D, Kremen C, Landis DA, Laurance W, Lindenmayer D, Scherber C, Sodhi N, Steffan-Dewenter I, Thies C, van der Putten WH, Westphal C (2012) Landscape moderation of biodiversity patterns and processes—eight hypotheses. Biol Rev 87:661–685

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Turtureanu PD, Palpurina S, Becker T, Dolnik C, Ruprecht E, Sutcliffe LME, Szabó A, Dengler J (2014) Scale- and taxon-dependent biodiversity patterns of dry grassland vegetation in Transylvania agriculture. Ecosyst Environ 182:15–51

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Whalen JK (2004) Spatial and temporal distribution of earthworm patches in corn field, hayfield and forest systems of southwestern Quebec, Canada. Appl Soil Ecol 27:143–151

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Whittingham MJ (2007) Will agri-environment schemes deliver substantial biodiversity gain, and if not why not? J Appl Ecol 44:1–5

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Winfree R, Kremen C (2009) Are ecosystem services stabilized by differences among species? A test using crop pollination Proc. R Soc B 276:229–237

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zhang W, Ricketts TH, Kremen C, Carney K, Swinton SM (2007) Ecosystem services and dis-services to agriculture. Ecol Econ 64:253–260

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zomer RJ, Trabucco A, Coe R, Place F (2009) Trees on farm: analysis of global extent and geographical patterns of agroforestry. ICRAF Working Paper no. 89. Nairobi, Kenya

Download references

Acknowledgments

We are grateful to all farmers who allowed access to their fields and provided information on land use and management. This work was funded by the European Union through the FP7 project BioBio (Indicators for biodiversity in organic and low-input farming systems; www.biobio-indicators.org), and is a contribution by MD to the projects Consolider Montes (CSD2008-00040), VULGLO (CGL2010-C03-03), REMEDINAL3-CM (S2013/MAE-2719) and BACCARA (CE: FP7-226299).

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Gerardo Moreno.

Electronic supplementary material

Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.

Supplementary material 1 (DOC 1498 kb)

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Moreno, G., Gonzalez-Bornay, G., Pulido, F. et al. Exploring the causes of high biodiversity of Iberian dehesas: the importance of wood pastures and marginal habitats. Agroforest Syst 90, 87–105 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10457-015-9817-7

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10457-015-9817-7

Keywords

Navigation