Abstract
Scientific research findings are frequently picked up by the mainstream media, but it is largely unclear which factors have an impact on laypeople’s processing of the presented scientific information. In this study, we investigated the influence of cognitive and metacognitive inter-individual differences on recall and on critical evaluation of new scientific information that was presented in a journalistic article. Sixty-three participants (80 % female; mean age 24.1 ± 3.3 years) read a newspaper article reporting research findings on a recently developed and yet unproven treatment for depression. We found that more sophisticated, domain-specific epistemological beliefs and a higher cognitive ability were independently associated with better recall of content from the article. Additionally, participants with more sophisticated epistemological beliefs displayed a more critical evaluation of the article. Cognitive ability was unrelated to critical evaluation and to epistemological beliefs. There were also no interaction effects of cognitive ability and epistemological beliefs on recall or on critical evaluation. Based on our preliminary findings and previous evidence of epistemological beliefs as a modifiable feature, we discuss this inter-individual characteristic as a potential target for the promotion of better understanding of scientific topics by the general public.
References
Alexander BS, Murphy PK, Woods BS, Duhon KE, Parker D (1997) College instruction and concomitant changes in students’ knowledge, interest, and strategy use: a study of domain learning. Contemp Educ Psychol 22:125–146. doi:10.1006/ceps.1997.0927
Bath DM, Smith CD (2009) The relationship between epistemological beliefs and the propensity for lifelong learning. Stud Cont Educ 31:173–189. doi:10.1080/01580370902927758
Beier ME, Ackerman PL (2005) Age, ability, and the role of prior knowledge on the acquisition of new domain knowledge: promising results in a real-world learning environment. Psychol Aging 20:341–355
Bendixen LD, Rule DC (2004) An integrative approach to personal epistemology: a guiding model. Educ Psychol 39:69–80. doi:10.1207/s15326985ep3901_7
Bientzle M, Cress U, Kimmerle J (2014) Epistemological beliefs and therapeutic health concepts of physiotherapy students and professionals. BMC Med Educ 14:208. doi:10.1186/1472-6920-14-208
Binet A, Simon T (1916) The development of intelligence in children: the binet-simon scale. Issue 11 of the Publications of the Training School at Vineland New Jersey Department of Research. Kite ES (Trans.). Williams & Wilkins, Baltimore
Britt MA, Richter T, Rouet J-F (2014) Scientific literacy: the role of goal-directed reading and evaluation in understanding scientific information. Educ Psychol 49:104–122. doi:10.1080/00461520.2014.916217
Britton BK, Stimson M, Stennett B, Gülgöz S (1998) Learning from instructional text: test of an individual-differences model. J Educ Psychol 90:476–491
Bromme R, Goldman SR (2014) The public’s bounded understanding of science. Educ Psychol 49:59–69. doi:10.1080/00461520.2014.921572
Bromme R, Pieschl S, Stahl E (2010) Epistemological beliefs are standards for adaptive learning: a functional theory about epistemological beliefs and metacognition. Metacog Learn 5:7–26. doi:10.1007/s11409-009-9053-5
Carroll JB (1993) Human cognitive abilities: a survey of factor-analytic studies. Cambridge University Press, New York
Carroll JB, Maxwell SE (1979) Individual differences in cognitive abilities. Annu Rev Psychol 30:603–640. doi:10.1146/annurev.ps.30.020179.003131
Cattell RB (1963) Theory of fluid and crystallized intelligence. J Educ Psychol 54:1–22. doi:10.1037/h0046743
Chase G, Simon HA (1973) Perception in chess. Cogn Psychol 61:55–61. doi:10.1016/0010-0285(73)90004-2
Chen JA, Pajares F (2010) Implicit theories of ability of grade 6 science students: relation to epistemological beliefs and academic motivation and achievement in science. Contemp Educ Psychol 35:75–87. doi:10.1016/j.cedpsych.2009.10.003
Chinn CA, Buckland LA, Samarapungavan A (2011) Expanding the dimensions of epistemic cognition: arguments from philosophy and psychology. Educ Psychol 46:141–167. doi:10.1080/00461520.2011.587722
Cook MP (2006) Visual representations in science education: the influence of prior knowledge and cognitive load theory on instructional design principles. Sci Educ 90:1073–1091. doi:10.1002/sce.20164
Cordova JR, Sinatra GM, Jones SH, Taasoobshirazi G, Lombardi D (2014) Confidence in prior knowledge, self-efficacy, interest and prior knowledge: influences on conceptual change. Contemp Educ Psychol 39:164–174. doi:10.1016/j.cedpsych.2014.03.006
Deary IJ (2012) Intelligence. Annu Rev Psychol 63:453–482. doi:10.1146/annurev-psych-120710-100353
Deary IJ, Strand S, Smith P, Fernandes C (2007) Intelligence and educational achievement. Intelligence 35:13–21. doi:10.1016/j.intell.2006.02.001
Dinsmore DL, Loughlin SM, Parkinson MM, Alexander PA (2015) The effects of persuasive and expository text on metacognitive monitoring and control. Learn Individ Differ. doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2015.01.009
Dochy F, De Rijdt C, Dyck W (2002) Cognitive prerequisites and learning: how far have we progressed since Bloom? Implications for educational practice and teaching. Act Learn Higher Educ 3:265–284. doi:10.1177/1469787402003003006
Dweck CS (2000) Self-theories: their role in motivation, personality, and development. Taylor & Francis, Philadelphia
Evans JSBT, Over DE (2010) Heuristic thinking and human intelligence: a commentary on Marewski, Gaissmaier and Gigerenzer. Cogn Proc 11:171–175
Ferguson LE, Bråten I, Strømsø HI (2012) Epistemic cognition when students read multiple documents containing conflicting scientific evidence: a think-aloud study. Learn Instr 22:103–120. doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2011.08.002
Fincher-Kiefer R, Post TA, Greene TR, Voss JF (1988) On the role of prior knowledge and task demands in the processing of text. J Mem Lang 27:416–428. doi:10.1016/0749-596X(88)90065-4
Flemming D, Feinkohl I, Cress U, Kimmerle J (2015) Individual uncertainty and the uncertainty of science: the impact of perceived conflict and general self-efficacy on the perception of tentativeness and credibility of scientific information. Front Psychol 6:1859. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01859
Friedman SM, Dunwoody S, Rogers CL (1999) Communicating uncertainty: media coverage of new and controversial science. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Inc, New York
Furst EJ (1950) Relationship between tests of intelligence and tests of critical thinking and of knowledge. J Educ Res 43:614–625. doi:10.1080/00220671.1950.10881816
Hambrick DZ, Engle RW (2002) Effects of domain knowledge, working memory capacity, and age on cognitive performance: an investigation of the knowledge-is-power hypothesis. Cogn Psychol 44:339–387. doi:10.1006/cogp.2001.0769
Hofer BK (2001) Personal epistemology research: implications for learning and teaching. Educ Psychol Rev 13:353–383
Hofer BK, Pintrich PR (1997) The development of epistemological theories: beliefs about knowledge and knowing and their relation to learning. Rev Educ Res 67:88–140. doi:10.3102/00346543067001088
Hunter JE, Schmidt FL (1996) Intelligence and job performance: economic and social implications. Psychol Pub Policy Law 2:447–472. doi:10.1037/1076-8971.2.3-4.447
Ibrahimovic N, Bulheller S (2009) Wortschatztest - Aktiv und Passiv. Ein Testverfahren zur Erfassung der sprachlichen Intelligenz. Pearson Assessment & Information GmbH, Frankfurt/Main, Germany
Jensen JD (2008) Scientific uncertainty in news coverage of cancer research: effects of hedging on scientists’ and journalists’ credibility. Hum Commun Res 34:347–369. doi:10.1111/j.1468-2958.2008.00324.x
Johnston P (1984) Prior knowledge and reading comprehension test bias. Read Res Q 19:219–239
Kardash CM, Scholes RJ (1996) Effects of preexisting beliefs, epistemological beliefs, and need for cognition on interpretation of controversial issues. J Educ Psychol 88:260–271. doi:10.1037/0022-0663.88.2.260
Kienhues D, Bromme R, Stahl E (2008) Changing epistemological beliefs: the unexpected impact of a short-term intervention. Brit J Educ Psychol 78:545–565
Kimmerle J, Flemming F, Feinkohl I, Cress U (2015) How laypeople understand the tentativeness of medical research news in the media: an experimental study on the perception of information about deep brain stimulation. Sci Commun 37:173–189. doi:10.1177/1075547014556541
Klaczynski P, Gordon D (1996) Self-serving influences on adolescents’ evaluations of belief-relevant evidence. J Exp Child Psychol 62:317–339
Ku KYL, Ho IT (2010) Metacognitive strategies that enhance critical thinking. Metacogn Learn 5:251–267. doi:10.1007/s11409-010-9060-6
Kuhn D (1993) Connecting scientific and informal reasoning. Merrill-Palmer Q 39:74–103. http://www.jstor.org/stable/23087301
Kuncel NR, Beatty AS (2013) Thinking at work: intelligence, critical thinking, job knowledge, and reasoning. In: Geisinger GF (ed) APA handbook of testing and assessment in psychology, volume 1: test theory and testing and assessment in industrial and organizational psychology. American Psychological Association, Washington DC, pp 417–435
Kuncel NR, Rose M, Ejiogu K, Yang Z (2014) Cognitive ability and socio-economic status relations with job performance. Intelligence 46:203–208. doi:10.1016/j.intell.2014.06.003
Le Bigot L, Rouet JF (2007) The impact of presentation format, task assignment, and prior knowledge on students’ comprehension of multiple online documents. J Lit Res 39:445–469. doi:10.1080/10862960701675317
Lederman NG, O’Malley M (1990) Students’ perceptions of tentativeness in science: development, use, and sources of change. Sci Educ 74:225–239. doi:10.1002/sce.3730740207
Maclellan E, Soden R (2011) Psychological knowledge for teaching critical thinking: the agency of epistemic activity, metacognitive regulative behaviour and (student-centred) learning. Instruct Sci 40:445–460. doi:10.1007/s11251-011-9183-4
Marewski JN, Gaissmaier W, Gigerenzer G (2010) Good judgments do not require complex cognition. Cogn Proc 11(103):121. doi:10.1007/s10339-009-0337-0
Mason L, Scirica F (2006) Prediction of students’ argumentation skills about controversial topics by epistemological understanding. Learn Instr 16:492–509. doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2006.09.007
Mayer RE (1996) Learning strategies for making sense out of expository text: the SOI model for guiding three cognitive processes in knowledge construction. Educ Psychol Rev 8:357–371. doi:10.1007/BF01463939
Means ML, Voss JF (1996) Who reasons well? Two studies of informal reasoning among children of different grade, ability, and knowledge levels. Cognit Instr 14:139–178. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3233749
Moynihan R, Bero L, Ross-Degnan D, Henry D, Lee K, Watkins J et al (2000) Coverage by the news media of the benefits and risks of medications. N Engl J Med 342:1645–1650. doi:10.1056/NEJM200006013422206
Murphy PK, Alexander PA (2002) What counts? The predictive powers of subject-matter knowledge, strategic processing, and interest in domain-specific performance. J Exp Educ 70:197–214. doi:10.1080/00220970209599506
Neisser U (1979) The concept of intelligence. Intelligence 3:217–227. doi:10.1016/0160-2896(79)90018-7
Neisser U, Boodoo G, Bouchard TJ Jr, Boykin AW, Brody N, Ceci SJ et al (1996) Intelligence: knowns and unknowns. Am Psychol 51:77–101. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.51.2.77
Nisbet MC, Scheufele DA, Shanahan J, Moy P, Brossard D, Lewenstein BV (2002) Knowledge, reservations, or promise? A media effects model for public perceptions of science and technology. Commun Res 29:584–608. doi:10.1177/009365002236196
Noftle EE, Robins RW (2007) Personality predictors of academic outcomes: big five correlates of GPA and SAT scores. J Pers Soc Psychol 93:116–130
Ozuru Y, Dempsey K, McNamara DS (2009) Prior knowledge, reading skill, and text cohesion in the comprehension of science texts. Learn Instr 19:228–242. doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2008.04.003
Pazzaglia F, Moè A (2013) Cognitive styles and mental rotation ability in map learning. Cogn Proc 14:391–399. doi:10.1007/s10339-013-0572-2
Phan HP (2010) Critical thinking as a self-regulatory process component of teaching and learning. Psicothema 22:284–292
Pieschl S, Stahl E, Bromme R (2008) Epistemological beliefs and self-regulated learning with hypertext. Metacogn Learn 3:17–37. doi:10.1007/s11409-007-9008-7
Raven J, Raven JC, Court H (1998) Manual for Raven’s progressive matrices and vocabulary scales. Oxford Psychologists Press Limited, Oxford
Recht DR, Leslie L (1988) Effect of prior knowledge on good and poor readers’ memory of text. J Educ Psychol 80:16–20. doi:10.1037/0022-0663.80.1.16
Richter T, Schmid S (2010) Epistemological beliefs and epistemic strategies in self-regulated learning. Metacogn Learn 5:47–65. doi:10.1007/s11409-009-9038-4
Roex A, Degryse J (2007) Introducing the concept of epistemological beliefs into medical education: the hot-air-balloon metaphor. Acad Med 82:616–620. doi:10.1097/ACM.0b013e3180556abd
Ross D, Loeffler K, Schipper S, Vandermeer B, Allan GM (2013) Do scores on three commonly used measures of critical thinking correlate with academic success of health professions trainees? A systematic review and meta-analysis. Acad Med 88:724–734. doi:10.1097/ACM.0b013e31828b0823
Rumelhart DE (1980) Schemata: the building blocks of cognition. In: Spiro RJ (ed) Theoretical issues in reading comprehension. Erlbaum, Hillsdale, pp 33–58
Sanders-Reio J, Alexander PA, Reio TJ Jr, Newman I (2014) Do students’ beliefs about writing relate to their writing self-efficacy, apprehension, and performance? Learn Instr 33:1–11. doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2014.02.001
Schlaepfer TE, Lieb K (2005) Deep brain stimulation for treatment of refractory depression. Lancet 366:1420–1422
Schlaepfer TE, Bewernick BH, Kayser S, Hurlemann R, Coenen VA (2014) Deep brain stimulation of the human reward system for major depression–rationale, outcomes and outlook. Neuropsychopharm 39:1303–1314
Schmalhofer F, McDaniel MA, Keefe D (2002) A unified model for predictive and bridging inferences. Discourse Process 33:105–132. doi:10.1207/S15326950DP3302_01
Schommer M (1993) Epistemological development and academic performance among secondary students. J Educ Psychol 85:406–411. doi:10.1037/0022-0663.85.3.406
Shapiro AM (2004) How including prior knowledge as a subject variable may change outcomes in learning research. Am Educ Res J 41:159–189. doi:10.3102/00028312041001159
Sinatra GM, Chinn CA (2012) Thinking and reasoning in science: promoting epistemic conceptual change. In: Harris KR, Graham S, Urdan T (eds) APA educational psychology handbook, volume 3: applications to learning and teaching. American Psychological Association, Washington DC
Stahl E, Bromme R (2007) The CAEB: an instrument for measuring connotative aspects of epistemological beliefs. Learn Instr 17:773–785. doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2007.09.016
Stanovich KE, West RF (1997) Reasoning independently of prior belief and individual differences in actively open-minded thinking. J Educ Psychol 89:342–357
Stanovich KE, West RF (2007) Natural myside bias is independent of cognitive ability. Think Reason 13:225–247. doi:10.1080/13546780600780796
Stanovich KE, West RF (2014) The assessment of rational thinking. Teach Psych 41:265–271. doi:10.1177/0098628314537988
Stanovich KE, West RF, Toplak ME (2013) Myside bias, rational thinking, and intelligence. Curr Dir Psychol Sci 22:259–264. doi:10.1177/0963721413480174
Sternberg RJ, Wagner RK (1993) The g-ocentric view of intelligence and job performance is wrong. Curr Dir Psychol Sci 2:1–4. doi:10.1111/1467-8721.ep10770441
Strømsø HI, Braten I, Britt MA (2011) Do students’ beliefs about knowledge and knowing predict their judgment of texts’ trustworthiness? Educ Psychol 31:177–206. doi:10.1080/01443410.2010.538039
Surber JR, Schroeder M (2007) Effect of prior domain knowledge and headings on processing of informative text. Contemp Educ Psychol 32:485–498. doi:10.1016/j.cedpsych.2006.08.002
Tobias S (1994) Interest, prior knowledge, and learning. Rev Educ Res 64:37–54. doi:10.3102/00346543064001037
Trautwein U, Lüdtke O (2007) Epistemological beliefs, school achievement, and college major: a large-scale longitudinal study on the impact of certainty beliefs. Contemp Educ Psychol 32:348–366. doi:10.1016/j.cedpsych.2005.11.003
Vrugt A, Oort FJ (2008) Metacognition, achievement goals, study strategies and academic achievement: pathways to achievement. Metacogn Learn 3:123–146. doi:10.1007/s11409-008-9022-4
Wang Q, Woo HL, Zhao J (2009) Investigating critical thinking and knowledge construction in an interactive learning environment. Interact Learn Environ 17:95–1004. doi:10.1080/10494820701706320
Westbrook BW, Sellers JR (1967) Critical thinking, intelligence, and vocabulary. Educ Psychol Meas 27:443–446. doi:10.1177/001316446702700227
Wetzels SAJ, Kester L, van Merrienboer JJG, Broers NJ (2011) The influence of prior knowledge on the retrieval-directed function of note taking in prior knowledge activation. Brit J Educ Psychol 81:274–291
Whitehead AN (2011) Science and the modern world. Cambridge University Press, New York
Willett JB (1997) Measuring change: what individual growth modeling buys you. In: Emsel E, Renninger KA (eds) Change and development: issues of theory, method, and application. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Inc, Mahwah, pp 213–243
Winne PH, Nesbit JC (2010) The psychology of academic achievement. Ann Rev Psychol 61:653–678
Yore LD, Shymansky JA (1991) Reading in science: developing an operational conception to guide instruction. J Sci Teach Educ 2:29–36. doi:10.1007/BF02962849
Zohar A, Nemet F (2002) Fostering students’ knowledge and argumentation skills through dilemmas in human genetics. J Res Sci Teach 39:35–62. doi:10.1002/tea.10008
Acknowledgments
The research reported here was funded by a Grant from the German Federal Ministry of Education and Research awarded to Joachim Kimmerle and Ulrike Cress (Grant No. 01GP1306B).
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Ethical approval
All procedures performed in studies involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional and/or national research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards.
Additional information
Handling Editor: Marta Olivetti Belardinelli, Sapienza University of Rome.
Reviewers: Kenneth J. Kurtz, Binghampton University, USA; R.V. Krishnaiah, DRK Institute of Science and Technology, Hyderabad, India.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Feinkohl, I., Flemming, D., Cress, U. et al. The impact of epistemological beliefs and cognitive ability on recall and critical evaluation of scientific information. Cogn Process 17, 213–223 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10339-015-0748-z
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10339-015-0748-z