Skip to main content
Log in

Theta activity and meditative states: spectral changes during concentrative meditation

  • Research Report
  • Published:
Cognitive Processing Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Brain oscillatory activity is associated with different cognitive processes and plays a critical role in meditation. In this study, we investigated the temporal dynamics of oscillatory changes during Sahaj Samadhi meditation (a concentrative form of meditation that is part of Sudarshan Kriya yoga). EEG was recorded during Sudarshan Kriya yoga meditation for meditators and relaxation for controls. Spectral and coherence analysis was performed for the whole duration as well as specific blocks extracted from the initial, middle, and end portions of Sahaj Samadhi meditation or relaxation. The generation of distinct meditative states of consciousness was marked by distinct changes in spectral powers especially enhanced theta band activity during deep meditation in the frontal areas. Meditators also exhibited increased theta coherence compared to controls. The emergence of the slow frequency waves in the attention-related frontal regions provides strong support to the existing claims of frontal theta in producing meditative states along with trait effects in attentional processing. Interestingly, increased frontal theta activity was accompanied reduced activity (deactivation) in parietal–occipital areas signifying reduction in processing associated with self, space and, time.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2

References

  • Aftanas LI, Golocheikine SA (2001) Human anterior and frontal midline theta and lower alpha reflect emotionally positive state and internalized attention: high-resolution EEG investigation of meditation. Neurosci Lett 310:57–60. doi:10.1016/S0304-3940(01)02094-8

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Aftanas LI, Golocheikine SA (2002) Non-linear dynamic complexity of the human EEG during meditation. Neurosci Lett 330:143–146. doi:10.1016/S0304-3940(02)00745-0

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Arambula P, Peper E, Kawakami M, Gibney KH (2001) The physiological correlates of Kundalini Yoga meditation: a study of a Yoga master. Appl Psychophysiol Biofeedback 26:147–153. doi:10.1023/A:1011343307783

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Arnold LE (2001) Alternative treatments for adults with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Ann NY Acad Sci 931:310–341

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Babiloni C, Babiloni F, Carducci F, Cappa SF, Cincotti F, Del Percio C et al (2004) Human cortical responses during one-bit short-term memory. A high-resolution EEG study on delayed choice reaction time tasks. Clin Neurophysiol 115:161–170. doi:10.1016/S1388-2457(03)00286-4

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Banquet JP (1973) Spectral analysis of the EEG in meditation. Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol 35:143–151

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Basar E (1999) Brain function and oscillations. II. Integrative brain function. Neurophysiology and cognitive processes. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg

    Google Scholar 

  • Basar E, Basar-Erogluc C, Karakas S, Schurmann M (2001) Gamma, alpha, delta, and theta oscillations govern cognitive processes. Int J Psychophysiol 39:241–248. doi:10.1016/S0167-8760(00)00145-8

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Basar-Eroglu C, Basar E, Demiralp T, Schurmann M (1992) P300-response: possible psychophysiological correlates in delta and theta frequency channels. A review. Int J Psychophysiol 13:161–179. doi:10.1016/0167-8760(92)90055-G

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bastiaansen MC, Posthuma D, Groot PF, de Geus EJ (2002) Event-related alpha and theta responses in a visuo-spatial working memory task. Clin Neurophysiol 113:1882–1893

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Batelli L, Walsh V, Pascual-Leone A, Cavanagh P (2008) The ‘when’ parietal pathway explored by lesion studies. Curr Opin Neurobiol 18:1–7. doi:10.1016/j.conb.2008.08.004

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Beauregard M, Paquette V (2008) EEG activity in Carmelite nuns during a mystical experience. Neurosci Lett 444(1):1–4. doi:10.1016/j.neulet.2008.08.028

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brefczynski-Lewis JA, Lutz A, Schaefer HS, Levinson DB, Davidson RJ (2007) Neural correlates of attentional expertise in long-term meditation practitioners. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 104:11483–11488. doi:10.1073/pnas.0606552104

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cahn BR, Polich J (2006) Meditation states and traits: EEG, ERP, and neuroimaging studies. Psychol Bull 132:180–211. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.132.2.180

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Davidson RJ, Kabat-Zinn J, Schumacher J, Rosenkranz M, Muller D, Santorelli SF et al (2003) Alterations in brain and immune function produced by mindfulness meditation. Psychosom Med 65:564–570. doi:10.1097/01.PSY.0000077505.67574.E3

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Deepak KK, Manchanda SK, Maheshwari MC (1994) Meditation improves clinicoelectroencephalographic measures in drug-resistant epileptics. Biofeedback Self Regul 19:25–40. doi:10.1007/BF01720668

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Deiber MP, Missonnier P, Bertrand O, Gold G, Fazio-Costa L, Ibañez V, Giannakopoulos P (2007) Distinction between perceptual and attentional processing in working memory tasks: a study of phase-locked and induced oscillatory brain dynamics. J Cogn Neurosci 19:158–172. doi:10.1162/jocn.2007.19.1.158

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dietrich A (2003) Functional neuroanatomy of altered states of consciousness: the transient hypofrontality hypothesis. Conscious Cogn 12:231–256. doi:10.1016/S1053-8100(02)00046-6

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dunn BR, Hartigan JA, Mikulas WL (1999) Concentration and mindfulness meditations: unique forms of consciousness? Appl Psychophysiol Biofeed 24:147–165

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gevins A, Smith ME, McEvoy L, Yu D (1997) High-resolution EEG mapping of cortical activation related to working memory: effects of task difficulty, type of processing, and practice. Cereb Cortex 7:374–385

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gomarus HK, Althaus M, Wijers AA, Minderaa RB (2006) The effects of memory load and stimulus relevance on the EEG during a visual selective search task: an ERP and ERD/ERS study. Clin Neurophysiol 117:871–884

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hebert R, Lehmann D (1977) Theta bursts: an EEG pattern in normal subjects practicing the Transcendental Meditation technique. Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol 42:397–405. doi:10.1016/0013-4694(77)90176-6

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Holzel BK, Ott U, Hempel H, Hackl A, Wolf K, Stark R, Vaitl D (2007) Differential engagement of anterior cingulated and adjacent medial frontal cortex in adept meditators and non-meditators. Neurosci Lett 421:16–21. doi:10.1016/j.neulet.2007.04.074

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jacobs GD, Lubar JF (1989) Spectral analysis of the central nervous system effects of the relaxation response elicited by autogenic training. Behav Med 15:125–132

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jacobs J, Hwang G, Curran T, Kahana MJ (2006) EEG oscillations and recognition memory: theta correlates of memory retrieval and decision making. Neuroimage 32:978–987. doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2006.02.018

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jensen O, Tesche CD (2002) Frontal theta activity in humans increases with memory load in a working memory task. Eur J Neurosci 15:1395–1399

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jha AP, Krompinger J, Baime MJ (2007) Mindfulness of training modifies subsystems of attention. Cogn Affect Behav Neurosci 7:109–119. doi:10.3758/CABN.7.2.109

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Khare KC, Nigam SK (2000) A study of electroencephalogram in meditators. Indian J Physiol Pharmacol 44:173–178

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Klimesch W (1999) EEG alpha and theta oscillations reflect cognitive and memory performance: a review and analysis. Brain Res Brain Res Rev 29:169–195. doi:10.1016/S0165-0173(98)00056-3

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Krause CM, Sillanmaki L, Koivisto M, Saarela C, Haggqvist A, Laine M, Hamalainen H (2000) The effects of memory load on event-related EEG desynchronization and synchronization. Clin Neurophysiol 111:2071–2078

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kwon JS, Hahm BJ, Rhi BY (1996) EEG changes during “Danhak” (Korean traditional meditation). In: Ogura C, Koga Y, Shimokochi M (eds) Recent advances in event-related potential research. Elsevier, Amsterdam

    Google Scholar 

  • Lehmann D, Faber PL, Achermann P, Jeanmonod D, Gianotti LR, Pizzagalli D (2001) Brain sources of EEG gamma frequency during volitionally meditation-induced, altered states of consciousness, and experience of the self. Psychiatry Res 108:111–121. doi:10.1016/S0925-4927(01)00116-0

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Makeig S, Delorme A, Westerfield M, Jung TP, Townsend J, Courchesne E, Sejnowski TJ (2004) Electroencephalographic brain dynamics following manually responded visual targets. PLoS Biol 2:747–762. doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.0020176

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Onton J, Delorme A, Makeig S (2005) Frontal midline EEG dynamics during working memory. Neuroimage 27:341–356

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pagano RR, Warrenburg S (1983) Meditation: in search of a unique effect. In: Davidson RJ, Schwartz GE, Shapiro D (eds) Consciousness and self-regulation, vol 3. Plenum Press, New York, pp 152–210

    Google Scholar 

  • Pan W, Zhang L, Xia Y (1994) The difference in EEG theta waves between concentrative and non-concentrative qigong states: power spectrum and topographic mapping study. J Tradit Chin Med 14:212–218

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pennekamp P, Bosel R, Mecklinger A, Ott H (1994) Differences in EEG theta for responded and omitted targets in a sustained attention task. J Psychophysiol 8:131–141

    Google Scholar 

  • Raghavachari S, Kahana MJ, Rizzuto DS, Caplan JB, Kirschen MP, Bourgeois B et al (2001) Gating of human theta oscillations by a working memory task. J Neurosci 21:3175–3183

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sauseng P, Hoppe J, Klimesch W, Gerloff C, Hummel FC (2007) Dissociation of sustained attention from central executive functions: local activity and interregional connectivity in the theta range. Eur J NeuroSci 25:587–593. doi:10.1111/j.1460-9568.2006.05286.x

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schack B, Weiss S (2005) Quantification of phase synchronization phenomena and their importance for verbal memory processes. Biol Cybern 92:275–287

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schack B, Klimesch W, Sauseng P (2005) Phase synchronization between theta and upper alpha oscillations in a working memory task. Int J Psychophysiol 57:105–114

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Singer W (1999) Neural synchrony: a versatile code for the definitions of relations? Neuron 24:49–65. doi:10.1016/S0896-6273(00)80821-1

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Slagter HA, Lutz A, Greischar LL, Francis AD, Nieuwenhuis S, Davis JM, Davidson RJ (2007) Mental training affects distribution of limited brain resources. PLoS Biol 5(6):e138. doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.0050138

  • Srinivasan N, Baijal S (2007) Concentrative meditation enhances preattentive processing: a mismatch negativity study. Neuroreport 18:1709–1712

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tang YY, Ma Y, Wang J, Fan Y, Feng S, Lu Q, Yu Q, Sui D, Rothbart MK, Fan M, Posner MI (2007) Short-term meditation training improves attention and self-regulation. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 104:17152–17156. doi:10.1073/pnas.0707678104

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Travis F (1991) Eyes open and TM EEG patterns after one and eight years of TM practice. Psychophysiology 28:58

    Google Scholar 

  • Travis F (2001) Autonomic and EEG patterns distinguish transcending from other experiences during Transcendental Meditation practice. Int J Psychophysiol 42:1–9. doi:10.1016/S0167-8760(01)00143-X

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Travis F, Wallace RK (1999) Autonomic and EEG patterns during eyes-closed rest and Transcendental Meditation (TM) practice: the basis for a neural model of TM practice. Conscious Cogn 8:302–318. doi:10.1006/ccog.1999.0403

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Travis F, Tecce JJ, Guttman J (2000) Cortical plasticity, contingent negative variation, and transcendent experiences during practice of the Transcendental Meditation technique. Biol Psychol 55:41–55. doi:10.1016/S0301-0511(00)00063-6

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Travis F, Tecce J, Arenander A, Wallace RK (2002) Patterns of EEG coherence, power, and contingent negative variation characterize the integration of transcendental and waking states. Biol Psychol 61:293–319. doi:10.1016/S0301-0511(02)00048-0

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Travis F, Haaga D, Haaga J, Tanner M, Arenander A, Nidich S, King C, Grosswald S, Rainforth M, Schneider R. A self-referential default brain state: patterns of coherence, power, and eLORETA sources during eyes-closed rest and the Transcendental Meditation practice. Cogn Process (under review)

  • Wallace RK (1970) Physiological effects of Transcendental Meditation. Science 167:1751–1754. doi:10.1126/science.167.3926.1751

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Weiss S, Müller HM, Rappelsberger P (2000) Theta synchronisation predicts efficient memory encoding of concrete and abstract nouns. Neuroreport 11:2357–2361

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Narayanan Srinivasan.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Baijal, S., Srinivasan, N. Theta activity and meditative states: spectral changes during concentrative meditation. Cogn Process 11, 31–38 (2010). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10339-009-0272-0

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10339-009-0272-0

Keywords

Navigation