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To fledge or not to fledge: factors influencing the number of eggs and the eggs-to-fledglings rate in White Storks Ciconia ciconia in an agricultural environment

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Abstract

Numerous studies have explored the relationship between environmental factors and White Stork Ciconia ciconia reproduction, mainly expressing breeding success as the number of fledglings. Nonetheless, one of the most critical life-history stages in birds falls between egg-laying and fledging, and identifying the factors causing offspring mortality during this period provides valuable knowledge. We quantified the number of laid White Stork eggs and the proportion of eggs that turned into fledglings in an agriculture-dominated region in Eastern Germany. Moreover, we identified the factors among land cover, weather and arrival dates, which influenced these two reproductive measures the most, and analysed the monitored mortality causes. On average, four eggs were laid per nest, and 57.8 % of the eggs turned into fledglings. The number of eggs laid was best explained by the negative effect of the arrival date of the second stork, while the percentage of eggs that turned into fledglings was more dependent on weather: most important parameters were mean temperature in the fifth and seventh weeks after the assumed breeding start (i.e. around the assumed hatching date), and the number of consecutive days with precipitation when nestlings are assumed to be approximately 3 weeks old. In an agricultural environment, weather effects that potentially disturb food availability might be more important than effects directly affecting the survival of White Stork offspring. The most frequent observed mortality cause, nest fights, furthermore revealed the relevance of intraspecific competition in the study population.

Zusammenfassung

Flügge oder nicht flügge: Gelegegröße und Überlebensrate beim Weißstorch Ciconia ciconia in einer Agrarlandschaft

Zahlreiche Studien untersuchten bereits den Einfluss von Umweltfaktoren auf die Reproduktion des Weißstorchs Ciconia ciconia, wobei der Bruterfolg meist als Anzahl von flüggen Jungen definiert wurde. Gerade im Hinblick auf die vorhergesagte Zunahme von Umweltveränderungen ist es aber von besonderer Bedeutung, auch Faktoren zu identifizieren, die bereits in einem der kritischsten Entwicklungsstadien bei Vögeln, der Phase zwischen Eiablage und Flüggewerden, für Verluste sorgen. In einer stark von Landwirtschaft geprägten ostdeutschen Region erfassten wir über einen langen Zeitraum die Anzahl gelegter Eier und den Anteil derer, aus denen erfolgreich Junge ausflogen. Wir bestimmten die wichtigsten Faktoren, die diese beiden Brutparameter beeinflussten, indem wir Landnutzung, Wetter und Ankunftsdaten als Prädiktoren verwendeten. Zusätzlich quantifizierten wir die erfassten Verlustumstände von Eiern und Nestlingen.Durchschnittlich wurden pro Nest vier Eier gezählt. Im Mittel gingen aus 57.8 % der Eier flügge Jungstörche hervor. Die Anzahl der gelegten Eier wurde am besten durch das Ankunftsdatum des zweiten Storchs am Nest erklärt, während der Anteil der Eier, aus denen flügge Jungstörche hervorgingen, vor allem von Wetterbedingungen abhing. Wichtigste Wetterfaktoren waren die mittlere Temperatur rund um den geschätzten Schlupfzeitpunkt (in den Wochen 5 und 7 nach dem geschätzten Brutbeginn) sowie die Anzahl aufeinanderfolgender Tage mit Niederschlag im geschätzten Nestlingsalter von drei Wochen (neun Wochen nach dem geschätzten Brutbeginn). Aufgrund unserer Beobachtungen vermuten wir, dass in einem landwirtschaftlich geprägten Gebiet die Wettereffekte, die potentiell die Nahrungsverfügbarkeit beeinflussen, wichtiger sind als die Effekte, die sich direkt auf das Überleben des Weißstorchennachwuchses auswirken. Die häufigste Mortalitätsursache, Nestkämpfe, wies darüber hinaus auf die Relevanz von intraspezifischer Konkurrenz in der beobachteten Population hin.

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Notes

  1. This led to the exclusion of the following variables: for Eggs: the arrival date of the first stork, Tmean in arrival weeks 1, 10, consecP in arrival weeks 1, 2, 9, 12, maxP in arrival weeks 3, 4, 5, 8, and the land cover class “non-irrigated arable land”; for EFR: arrival dates of both storks, Tmean in arrival weeks 9, 12, maxP in arrival weeks 4, 12, consecP in arrival weeks 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, and the land cover class “Non-irrigated arable land”.

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Acknowledgments

This monitoring program would not have been possible without the commitment and the dedication of numerous persons, including Thomas Bich, Eckhart Held, Christoph Kaatz and Günter Stachowiak†. We furthermore want to thank Bernd Weisbach for providing his elevation truck and his time. Meteorological data were kindly provided by Fred Hattermann and Ylva Hauf from Potsdam Institute for Climate Impact Research (PIK), after authorisation of the German Weather Service (DWD). U.E. would like to further thank Rita Engemaier, Anett Schibalski, Peter Vorpahl, Damaris Zurell, and especially Susanne Stang for advice on data management, modelling and GIS, Jens Lehmann for proof reading, and three anonymous reviewers for their valuable and constructive feedback. U.E. was funded by a PhD scholarship of the Deutsche Bundesstiftung Umwelt (DBU), by a grant from the science faculty of the University of Potsdam (GFK/Mathematisch-Naturwissenschaftliche Fakultät), and also received financial support from the German Science Foundation DFG (WI 3576/1-1) for which she is grateful. We declare that this study complies with the current laws in Saxony-Anhalt, Germany.

Conflict of interest

We have no conflicts of interest to declare.

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. Eco-Ethology, University of Potsdam, Maulbeerallee 2a, 14469, Potsdam, Germany

    Ute Eggers & Dieter Wallschläger

  2. Plant Ecology and Nature Conservation, University of Potsdam, Maulbeerallee 2, 14469, Potsdam, Germany

    Ute Eggers

  3. White Stork Carer, Rural District Salzwedel (Saxony-Anhalt), Vienau, Germany

    Michael Arens

  4. White Stork Carer, Rural District Genthin (Saxony-Anhalt), Ferchland, Germany

    Mario Firla

Authors
  1. Ute Eggers
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  2. Michael Arens
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  3. Mario Firla
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  4. Dieter Wallschläger
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Corresponding author

Correspondence to Ute Eggers.

Additional information

Communicated by C. Barbraud.

Appendix 1

Appendix 1

Proportions of CORINE Land Cover classes (averaged from 2000 to 2006) in 2-km radii around White Stork nests in the former district Kalbe (Milde). ‘Agrar_extensive’ sums the classes “complex cultivation patterns” and “land principally occupied by agriculture with significant areas of natural vegetation”, while ‘forest’ pools the three classes “Broad-leaved forest”, “Coniferous forest” and “Mixed forest”.

See Table 2.

Table 2 Proportions of CORINE Land Cover classes (averaged from 2000 to 2006) in 2-km radii around White Stork nests in the former district Kalbe (Milde)
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Eggers, U., Arens, M., Firla, M. et al. To fledge or not to fledge: factors influencing the number of eggs and the eggs-to-fledglings rate in White Storks Ciconia ciconia in an agricultural environment. J Ornithol 156, 711–723 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10336-015-1182-9

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