Abstract
Technetium-99 (99Tc) is a radioactive isotope with a half-life of 2.13 × 105 year. 99Tc is a major radionuclide contaminant of concern for the world. Therefore, detailed understanding of 99Tc environmental chemistry is important for protecting human and ecological health. Here, we review the aqueous geochemistry of 99Tc, focusing on chemical properties and behavior of 99Tc in the hydrosphere and pedosphere. We describe the general chemistry of Tc including coordination chemistry, isotope chemistry and solid-state chemistry. Then we present anthropogenic and indigenous sources of 99Tc and their environmental distribution. We also discuss the radiotoxicity of 99Tc and the use of 99Tc for medical purpose. Tc biogeochemistry is described through sorption and desorption reactions at the mineral–water interface, thermodynamic of surface complexation, abiotic and biotic redox reaction of Tc(VII). Finally, we summarize the 99Tc remediation technologies including cement waste forms, natural remediation, vitrification, nuclear waste transmutation.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Aarkrog A, Dahlgaard H, Hallstadius L, Holm E, Mattsson S, Rioseco J (1986) Time trend of 99Tc in seaweed from Greenland waters. In: Technetium in the environment. Springer, pp 69–78. doi:10.1007/978-94-009-4189-2_7
Ahrland S, Chatt J, Davies N (1973) The relative affinities of ligand atoms for acceptor molecules and ions. In: Pearson RG (ed) Hard and soft acids and bases. Hutchinson and Ross Inc., Stroudsburg, p 28
Alberto R (2009) The chemistry of technetium–water complexes within the manganese triad: challenges and perspectives. Eur J Inorg Chem 1:21–31. doi:10.1002/ejic.200800909
Allen PG, Siemering GS, Shuh DK, Bucher JJ, Edelsteign NM, Langton CA, Clark SB, Reich T, Denecke MA (1997) Technetium speciation in cement waste forms determined by x-ray absorption fine structure spectroscopy. Radiochim Acta 76:77–86. doi:10.1524/ract.1997.76.12.77
Aloy A, Kovarskaya EN, Harbour JR, Langton CA, Holtzscheiter EW (2007) Pretreatment of Tc-containing waste and its effect on Tc-99 leaching from grouts. MRS Proc 985:272–367. doi:10.1557/PROC-985-0985-NN10-02
Angus M, Glasser F (1985) The chemical environment in cement matrices. Mater Res Soc Symp Proc. doi:10.1557/PROC-50-547
Aryal BP, Brugarolas P, He C (2011) Binding of ReO4 − with an engineered MoO4 2−-binding protein: towards a new approach in radiopharmaceutical applications. J Biol 17:97–106. doi:10.1007/s00775-011-0833-4
Atkins M, Glasser F (1992) Application of Portland cement-based materials to radioactive waste immobilization. Waste Manage 12:105–131. doi:10.1016/0956-053X(92)90044-J
Baldas J (1996) The chemistry of technetium nitrido complexes. Top Curr Chem 176:37–76. doi:10.1007/3-540-59469-8_3
Bandoli G, Tisato F, Dolmella A, Agostini S (2006) Structural overview of technetium compounds (2000–2004). Coord Chem Rev 250:561–573. doi:10.1016/j.ccr.2005.09.012
Banerjee SR, Maresca KP, Francesconi L, Valliant J, Babich JW, Zubieta J (2005) New directions in the coordination chemistry of 99mTc: a reflection on technetium core structures and a strategy for new chelate design. Nucl Med Biol 32:1–20. doi:10.1016/j.nucmedbio.2004.09.001
Bebie J, Schoonen MA, Fuhrmann M, Strongin DR (1998) Surface charge development on transition metal sulfides: an electrokinetic study. Geochim Cosmochim Acta 62:633–642. doi:10.1016/S0016-7037(98)00058-1
Begg JDC, Burke IT, Morris K (2007) The behaviour of technetium during microbial reduction in amended soils from Dounreay, UK. Sci Total Environ 373:297–304. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2006.10.034
Bock WD, Brühl H, Trapp C, Winkler A (1988) Sorption properties of natural sulfides with respect to technetium. Mater Res Soc Symp. doi:10.1557/PROC-127-973
Boggs MA, Nulle SE, Wall NA (2015) Size fractionated complexation of Tc(IV) with soil humic acids at varying solution conditions. J Radiaoanal Nucl Chem 303:541–549. doi:10.1007/s10967-014-3325-5
Bostick W, Shoemaker J, Osborne P, Evans-Brown B (1990) Treatment and disposal options for a heavy metals waste containing soluble technetium-99. In: ACS symposium series
Bruggeman C, Maes A, Vancluysen J (2007) The identification of FeS2 as a sorption sink for Tc (IV). Phys Chem Earth A B C 32:573–580. doi:10.1016/j.pce.2005.12.006
Bryan C, Wang Y, Xu H, Braterman P, Gao H (2002) As, Se, and Re sorption by Mg–Al layered double hydroxides. Mater Res Soc Symp Proc. doi:10.1557/PROC-757-II8.5
Buda C, Burt SK, Cundari TR, Shenkin PS (2002) De novo structural prediction of transition metal complexes: application to technetium. Inorg Chem 41:2060–2069. doi:10.1021/ic0109748
Cantrell K, Krupka K, Deutsch W, Lindberg M (2009) Contaminant release from residual waste in Hanford single shell tanks at the Hanford Site, Washington, USA. In: Proceedings of the 35th international waste management conference (WM’09), Phoenix, Arizona, 1–5 March 2009
Centre for Environment, Fisheries & Aquaculture Science (CEFAS) (2010) Radioactivity in food and the environment, 2009, RIFE-15, 2010. http://www.cefas.co.uk/publications/rife/rife15.pdf. Accessed Feb 9 2015
Chart of Nuclides. Brookhaven National Laboratory. http://www.nndc.bnl.gov/chart/reCenter.jsp?z=58&n=78. Accessed June 20 2012
Colton R, Peacock R (1962) An outline of technetium chemistry. Chem Soc Rev 16:299–315. doi:10.1039/qr9621600299
Cui D, Eriksen TE (1996a) Reduction of pertechnetate in solution by heterogeneous electron transfer from Fe(II)-containing geological material. Environ Sci Technol 30:2263–2269. doi:10.1039/QR9621600299
Cui D, Eriksen TE (1996b) Reduction of pertechnetate by ferrous iron in solution: influence of sorbed and precipitated Fe(II). Environ Sci Technol 30:2259–2262. doi:10.1021/es9506263
Curtis D, Fabryka-Martin J, Dixon P, Cramer J (1999) Nature’s uncommon elements: plutonium and technetium. Geochim Cosmochim Acta 63:275–285. doi:10.1016/S0016-7037(98)00282-8
Defense waste processing facility (2009) Savannah River Remediation LLC. http://www.srs.gov/general/news/factsheets/dwpf.pdf. Accessed Sept 5 2012
Del Cul G, Bostick W, Trotter D, Osborne P (1993) Technetium-99 removal from process solutions and contaminated groundwater. Sep Sci Technol 28:551–564. doi:10.1080/01496399308019506
Deutsch E, Hirth W (1987) In vivo inorganic chemistry of technetium cations. J Nucl Med 28:1491–1500
Deutsch WJ, Krupka KM, Lindberg MJ, Cantrell KJ, Brown CF, Schaef HT (2006) Hanford tank 241-C-106: impact of cement reactions on release of contaminants from residual waste. PNNL, Richland
Dolor MK (2005) The mechanism of rhenium fixation in reducing sediments. Ph. D Dissertation, University of Maryland
Drinking water contaminants—standards and regulations. EPA. http://water.epa.gov/drink/contaminants/index.cfm#List. Accessed June 4 2012
Edwards DS, Liu S, Barrett JA, Harris AR, Looby RJ, Ziegler MC, Heminway SJ, Carroll TR (1997) New and versatile ternary ligand system for technetium radiopharmaceuticals: water soluble phosphines and tricine as coligands in labeling a hydrazinonicotinamide-modified cyclic glycoprotein IIb/IIIa receptor antagonist with 99mTc. Bioconjugate Chem 8:146–154. doi:10.1021/bc970002h
El-Swaify S, Coleman N, Bredell G, Arca M (1967) Negative adsorption by vermiculite: salt exclusion from interlayer volumes. Soil Sci Soc Am J 31:464–466. doi:10.2136/sssaj1967.03615995003100040015x
Facts about technetium-99 (2002) The United States Environmental Protection Agency. https://www.nrc.gov/docs/ML1603/ML16032A152.pdf. Accessed 6 June 2013
Fredrickson JK, Zachara JM, Kennedy DW, Kukkadapu RK, McKinley JP, Heald SM, Liu C, Plymale AE (2004) Reduction of TcO4 − by sediment-associated biogenic Fe(II). Geochim Cosmochim Acta 15:3171–3187. doi:10.1016/j.gca.2003.10.024
Geraedts K, Bruggeman C, Maes A, Van Loon LR, Rossberg A, Reich T (2002) Evidence for the existence of Tc(IV)–humic substance species by X-ray absorption near-edge spectroscopy. Radiochim Acta 90:879–884. doi:10.1524/ract.2002.90.12_2002.879
Gilliam TM, Spence RD, Bostick WD, Shoemaker J (1990) Solidification/stabilization of technetium in cement-based grouts. J Hazard Mater 24:189–197. doi:10.1016/0304-3894(90)87009-7
Greenwood NN, Earnshaw A (1997) Manganese, technetium and rhenium. In: Chemistry of the elements, 2nd edn. Elsevier, pp 1040–1044
Haines R, Owen D, Van Der Graaf T (1987) Technetium-iron oxide reactions under anaerobic conditions: a Fourier transform infrared, FTIR study. Nucl J Can 1:32–37
Hang T, Kaplan DI (2007) Modeling of the sub-surface reducing environment of the Z-Area Saltstone disposal facility at the Savannah River Site In: Proceedings of the 2007 spring simulation multiconference. Society for computer simulation, vol 3, pp 33–37
Harbour J, Hansen E, Edwards T, Williams V, Eibling R, Best D, Missimer D (2006) Characterization of slag, fly ash and portland cement for saltstone. United States Department of Energy. Process Science and Engineering Savannah River National Laboratory, Aiken, SC 29808. WSRC-TR-2006-00067
Haudin C, Quillérou E, Wang G, Staunton S, Martin-Garin A (2011) Dynamics of Tc immobilization in soils under flooded conditions and extent of reoxidation following aeration. Geomicrobiol J 28:410–417. doi:10.1080/01490451.2010.507641
Hjelstuen OK (1995) Technetium-99 m chelators in nuclear medicine: a review. Analyst 120:863–866. doi:10.1039/AN9952000863stop
Holm E (1993) Radioanalytical studies of Tc in the environment-progress and problems. Radiochim Acta 63:57–68. doi:10.1524/ract.1993.63.special-issue.57
Hu Q, Zavarin M, Rose T (2008) Effect of reducing groundwater on the retardation of redox-sensitive radionuclides. Geochem Trans 9:12. doi:10.1186/1467-4866-9-12
Huheey JE, Evans RS (1973) Electronegativity, acids, and bases-II. In: Pearson RG (ed) Hard and soft acids and bases. Hutchinson and Ross Inc., Stroudsburg, p 232
IAEA (1982) Generic models and parameters for assessing the environmental transfer of radionuclides from routine releases. Safety series; no. 57; 1982; 96 p; IAEA; Vienna. http://www.iaea.org/inis/collection/NCLCollectionStore/_Public/14/732/14732403.pdf
IAEA (1994) Handbook of parameter values for the prediction of radionuclide transfer in temperate environments. Vienna
Icenhower JP, Qafoku NP, Zachara JM, Martin WJ (2010) The biogeochemistry of technetium: a review of the behavior of an artificial element in the natural environment. Am J Sci 310:721–752. doi:10.2475/08.2010.02
Ihsanullah (1993) Losses of technetium during various steps in the development of a procedure for environmental samples. J Radioanal Nucl Chem 176:303–313. doi:10.1007/BF02163495
Ito K, Akiba K (1991) Adsorption of pertechnetate ion on active carbon from acids and their salt solutions. J Radioanal Nucl Chem 390–381:152. doi:10.1007/BF02104691
Johannsen B, Spies H (1996) Technetium(V) chemistry as relevant to nuclear medicine. Top Curr Chem 176:79–121
Juniku RB (2004) Designing chiral rhenium (VII) trioxo complexes. Dissertation, Oregon State University
Jurisson S, Gawenis J, Landa ER (2004) Sorption of 99mTc radiopharmaceutical compounds by soils. Health Phys 87:423–428. doi:10.1097/01.HP.0000128583.33124.7d
Kang MJ, Rhee SW, Moon H, Neck V, Fandhanel T (1996) Sorption of MO −4 (M = Tc, Re) on Mg/Al layered double hydroxide by anion exchange. Radiochim Acta 75:169–174
Kang MJ, Rhee SW, Hahn PS (2003) Sorption of aqueous toxic anions on calcined Mg/Al layered double hydroxide: an approach to mechanism. Environ Eng Res 8:22–30
Kaplan DI (2003) Influence of surface charge of an Fe-oxide and an organic matter dominated soil on iodide and pertechnetate sorption. Radiochim Acta 91:173–178. doi:10.1524/ract.91.3.173.19977
Kaplan D, Serne R (1998) Pertechnetate exclusion from sediments. Radiochim Acta 81:117–124
Kaplan D, Lilley M, Almond P, Powell B (2011) Long-term technetium interactions with reducing cementitious materials. SRS. doi:10.2172/1012465
Kim E, Boulègue J (2003) Chemistry of rhenium as an analogue of technetium: experimental studies of the dissolution of rhenium oxides in aqueous solutions. Radiochim Acta 91:211–216. doi:10.1524/ract.91.4.211.19968
King RB (2005) Technetium: organometallic chemistry. In: King RB (ed) Encyclopedia of inorganic chemistry, 2nd edn. Wiley, New York
Kornicker W (1988) Interactions of divalent cations with pyrite and mackinawite in seawater and sodium-chloride solutions. Dissertation, Texas A&M University
Köstlmeier S, Nasluzov VA, Herrmann WA, Rösch N (1997) Lewis acidity and reactivity of transition metal oxo complexes: a comparative density functional study of CH3ReO3, CH3TcO3, and their base adducts. Organometal 16:1786–1792. doi:10.1021/om9608317
Krupka KM, Cantrell KJ, Schaef HT, Arey BW, Heald SM, Deutsch WJ, Lindberg MJ (2009) Characterization of solids in residual Wastes from single-shell tanks at the Hanford Site, Washington, USA-9277. In: WM2009 Waste Management for the Nuclear Renaissance, WM Symposia Inc. Tempe, AZ
Kuwabara J, Yamamoto M, Oikawa S, Komura K, Assinder D (1999) Measurements of 99Tc, 137Cs, 237Np, Pu isotopes and 241Am in sediment cores from intertidal coastal and estuarine regions in the Irish Sea. J Radioanal Nucl 240:593–601
Langmuir D (1997) Aqueous environmental geochemistry. Prentice-Hall Inc, Upper Saddle River
Langton C (1987) Slag-based saltstone formulations. Mater Res Soc Symp Proc 114:61
Lee S, Bondietti E (1983) Technetium behavior in sulfide and ferrous iron solutions. Mater Res Soc Symp Proc 15:315
Lenell B, Arai Y (2017) Perrhenate sorption kinetics in zerovalent iron in high pH and nitrate media. J Hazard Mater 321:335–343. doi:10.1016/j.jhazmat.2016.09.024
Lieser K, Bauscher C (1987) Technetium in the hydrosphere and in the geosphere. I. Chemistry of technetium and iron in natural waters and influence of the redox potential on the sorption of technetium. Radiochim Acta 42:205–214
Lieser K, Bauscher C (1988) Technetium in the hydrosphere and in the geosphere II. Influence of pH, of complexing agents, and of some minerals on the sorption of technetium. Radiochim Acta 44:125–128
Liu S, Edwards DS (1999) 99 mTc-labeled small peptides as diagnostic radiopharmaceuticals. Chem Rev 99:2235–2268. doi:10.1021/cr980436l
Liu D, Fan X (2005) Adsorption behavior of 99Tc on Fe, Fe2O3 and Fe2O4. J Radioanal Nucl Chem 264:691–698. doi:10.1007/s10967-005-0772-z
Liu Y, Terry J, Jurisson SS (2008) Pertechnetate immobilization with amorphous iron sulfide. Radiochim Acta 95:823–833. doi:10.1524/ract.2008.1528
Livens FR, Jones MJ, Hynes AJ, Charnock JM, Mosselmans JFW, Hennig C, Steele H, Collison D, Vaughan DJ, Pattrick RAD (2004) X-ray absorption spectroscopy studies of reactions of technetium, uranium and neptunium with mackinawite. J Environ Radioact 74:211–219. doi:10.1016/j.jenvrad.2004.01.012
Llorens I, Fattahi M, Grambow B (2007) New synthesis route and characterization of siderite (FeCO3) and coprecipitation of 99Tc. In: Materials research society symposia proceedings
Lloyd J, Macaskie L (1996) A novel phosphorimager-based technique for monitoring the microbial reduction of technetium. Appl Environ Microbiol 62:578–582
Lloyd J, Cole J, Macaskie L (1997) Reduction and removal of heptavalent technetium from solution by Escherichia coli. J Bacteriol 179:2014–2021
Lloyd J, Nolting HF, Sole V, Bosecker K, Macaskie L (1998) Technetium reduction and precipitation by sulfate-reducing bacteria. Geomicrobiol J 15:45–58
Lloyd J, Thomas G, Finlay J, Cole J, Macaskie L (1999) Microbial reduction of technetium by Escherichia coli and Desulfovibrio desulfuricans: enhancement via the use of high-activity strains and effect of process parameters. Biotechnol Bioeng 66:122–130. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1097-0290(1999)66:2<122:AID-BIT5>3.0.CO;2-Y
Lloyd J, Sole V, Van Praagh C, Lovley D (2000) Direct and Fe(II)-mediated reduction of technetium by Fe(III)-reducing bacteria. Appl Environ Microbiol 66:3743–3749. doi:10.1128/AEM.66.9.3743-3749.2000
Lovley DR (1991) Dissimilatory Fe(III) and Mn(IV) reduction. Microbiol Rev 55:259–287
Lukens WW, Bucher JJ, Shuh DK, Edelstein NM (2005) Evolution of technetium speciation in reducing grout. Environ Sci Technol 39:8064–8070. doi:10.1021/cm0622001
Lukens WW, McKeown DA, Buechele AC, Muller IS, Shuh DK, Pegg IL (2007) Dissimilar behavior of technetium and rhenium in borosilicate waste glass as determined by X-ray absorption spectroscopy. Chem Mater 19:559–566
Maes A, Bruggeman C, Geraedts K, Vancluysen J (2003) Quantification of the interaction of Tc with dissolved boom clay humic substances. Environ Sci Technol 37:747–753. doi:10.1021/es020091v
Marra S, O’Driscoll R, Fellinger T, Ray J, Patel P, Occhipinti J (1999) DWPF vitrification—transition to the second batch of high level waste radioactive sludge. In: Proceedings of the international conference “Waste Management’99, Tucson, AZ, United States, pp 48–05
Material safety data sheet (2010). Sigma-Aldrich. http://www.sigmaaldrich.com/MSDS/MSDS/DisplayMSDSPage.do?country=US&language=en&productNumber=204188&brand=ALDRICH&PageToGoToURL=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sigmaaldrich.com%2Fcatalog%2Fproduct%2Faldrich%2F204188%3Flang%3Den. Accessed 3 Sept 2012
Mattigod SV, Serne RJ, Fryxell GE (2003) Selection and testing of “getters” for adsorption of iodine-129 and technetium-99: A review. PNNL, Richland
Mattigod SV, Bovaird CC, Wellman DM, Skinner DCJ, Cordova EA, Wood MI (2009) Effect of concrete waste form properties on radionuclide migration. PNNL, Richland
McBride MB (1994) Environmental chemistry of soils. Oxford University Press, New York
Momoshima N, Sayad M, Takashima Y (1995) Determination of 99Tc in coastal seawater collected in Fukuoka, Japan. J Radioanal Nucl Chem 197:245–251. doi:10.1007/BF02036003
Momoshima N, Sayad M, Yamada M, Takamura M, Kawamura H (2005) Global fallout levels of 99Tc and activity ratio of 99Tc/137Cs in the Pacific Ocean. J Radioanal Nucl Chem 266:455–460. doi:10.1007/s10967-005-0931-2
Ng YC, Colsher CS, Thompson SE (1979) Transfer coefficients for terrestrial foodchain: their derivation and limitations. Lawrence Livermore Lab, California University, California, California
Nowak E (1980) Radionuclide sorption and migration studies of getters for backfill barriers. Sandia National Labs, Albuquerque
Omori T (1996) Substitution reactions of technetium compounds. Top Curr Chem 176:253–273
Ono M, Arano Y, Uehara T, Fujioka Y, Ogawa K, Namba S, Mukai T, Nakayama M, Saji H (1999) Intracellular metabolic fate of radioactivity after injection of technetium-99 m-labeled hydrazino nicotinamide derivatized proteins. Bioconjugate Chem 10:386–394. doi:10.1021/bc980105f
Palmer DA, Meyer RE (1981) Adsorption of technetium on selected inorganic ion-exchange materials and on a range of naturally occurring minerals under oxic conditions. J Inorg Nucl Chem 43:2979–2984. doi:10.1016/0022-1902(81)80654-9
Paquette J, Reid J, Rosinger E (1980) Review of technetium behavior in relation to nuclear waste disposal. Atomic Energy Commission 23:19. http://www.iaea.org/inis/collection/NCLCollectionStore/_Public/23/066/23066563.pdf
Peacock RD (1966) The chemistry of technetium and rhenium. Elsevier, New York
Pearson RG (1963) Hard and soft acids and bases. J Am Chem Soc 85:3533–3539. doi:10.1021/ja00905a001
Pearson RG (1968) Hard and soft acids and bases, HSAB, part 1: fundamental principles. J Chem Educ 45:581. doi:10.1021/ed045p581
Peretroukhine V, Sergeant C, Devès G, Poulain S, Vesvres M, Thomas B, Simonoff M (2006) Technetium sorption by stibnite from natural water. Radiochim Acta 94:665–669. doi:10.1524/ract.2006.94.9.665
Peretyazhko T, Zachara JM, Heald SM, Jeon BH, Kukkadapu RK, Liu C, Moore D, Resch CT (2008) Heterogeneous reduction of Tc(VII) by Fe(II) at the solid–water interface. Geochim Cosmochim Acta 72:1521–1539. doi:10.1016/j.gca.2008.01.004
Poineau F, Rodriguez E, Weck P, Sattelberger A, Forster P, Hartmann T, Mausolf E, Silva GWC, Jarvinen G, Cheetham A (2009) Review of technetium chemistry research conducted at the University of Nevada Las Vegas. J Radioanal Nucl Chem 282:605–609. doi:10.1007/s10967-009-0226-0
Pollutants in the ambient air (2010a). U.S. EPA. http://www.epa.gov/apti/course422/ap2.html
Radioisotope safety data sheet technetium 99 m (2004). In: Occupational Health & Safety Division, the University of Queensland. http://www.uq.edu.au/ohs/pdfs/Tc99mguideline.pdf. Accessed Sept 3 2012
Roat-Malone RM (2002) Inorganic chemistry essentials. In: Bioinorganic chemistry: a short course. Wiley, London, pp 1–23. doi:10.1002/0471265330.ch1
Rulfs CL, Pacer RA, Hirsch R (1967) Technetium chemistry, oxidation states and species. J Inorg Nucl Chem 29:681–691. doi:10.1016/0022-1902(67)80323-3
Serne RJ (1990) Grouted waste leach tests: pursuit of mechanisms and data for long-term performance assessment. Scientific B as is for Nuclear Waste Management XIII. Oversby VM, Brown PW (eds) Materials Research Society, Boston, MA, vol 76, pp. 91–99
Shen D, Fan X, Su X, Zeng J, Dong Y (2002) Sorption of radioactive technetium on pyrrhotine. J Radioanal Nucl Chem 254:137–142. doi:10.1023/A:1020810118684
Shi K, Hou X, Roos P, Wu W (2012) Determination of technetium-99 in environmental samples: a review. Anal Chim Acta 709:1–20. doi:10.1016/j.aca.2011.10.020
Shuh DK, Lukens WW, Fickes MJ, Bucher JJ, Burns CJ, Edelstein NM (2000) Research program to investigate the fundamental chemistry of technetium. EMSP-60296:1–60. Final report. U.S. Department of Energy
Siekierski S, Burgess J (2002) Concise chemistry of the elements. Horwood Publishing, England
Skarnemark G (1992) Field and laboratory studies of the reduction and sorption of technetium (VII). Radiochimica Acta 58:239–244
Skomurski FN, Rosso KM, Krupka KM, McGrail BP (2010) Technetium incorporation into hematite (α-Fe2O3). Environ Sci Technol 44:5855–5861. doi:10.1021/es100069x
Sparks DL (2003) Environmental soil chemistry. Academic Press, San Diego
Sparks N, Mann S, Bazylinski D, Lovley D, Jannasch H, Frankel RB (1990) Structure and morphology of magnetite anaerobically-produced by a marine magnetotactic bacterium and a dissimilatory iron-reducing bacterium. Earth Planet Sci Lett 98:14–22. doi:10.1016/0012-821X(90)90084-B
Strickert R, Friedman A, Fried S (1978) Sorption of technetium and iodine radioisotopes by various minerals. Trans Am Nucl Soc 28:365–366
Stwertka A (2002) A guide to the elements. Oxford University Press, Oxford
Tagami K (2003) Technetium-99 behavior in the terrestrial environment. J Radioanal Nucl Chem 4:A1–A8. doi:10.14494/jnrs2000.4.A1
Tagami K, Uchida S (1999) Chemical transformation of technetium in soil during the change of soil water conditions. Chemosphere 38:963–971. doi:10.1016/S0045-6535(98)00361-0
Tagami K, Uchida S (2002) Global fallout technetium-99 distribution and behavior in Japanese soils. J Nucl Radiochem Sci 3:1–5. doi:10.14494/jnrs2000.3.2_1
Thorpe CL, Lloyd JR, Law GTW, Williams HA, Atherton N, Cruickshank JH, Morris K (2015) Retention of Tc-99 m at ultra-trace levels in flowing column experiments—insights into bioreduction and biomineralization for remediation at nuclear facilities. Geomicrobiol J 33:199–205. doi:10.1080/01490451.2015.1067656
Till JE (1986) Technetium discharges into the environment. In: Desmet G, Myttenaere C (eds) Technetium in the environment. Springer, Dordrecht, pp 1–20
Tisato F, Refosco F, Bandoli G (1994) Structural survey of technetium complexes. Coord Chem Rev 135–136:325–397. doi:10.1016/0010-8545(94)80072-3
Tro N (2008) Chemistry, a molecular approach. Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River
Um W, Valenta MM, Chung CW, Yang J, Engelhard MH, Serne RJ, Parker KE, Wang G, Cantrell KJ, Westsik JH (2011) Radionuclide retention mechanisms in secondary waste-form testing: Phase II. PNNL, Richland
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) (2000) Federal Register: Part 2, 40 CFR Parts 9, 141, and 142, National Primary Drinking Water Regulations: Radionuclides; Final Rule. 815-Z-00-006
Vandergraaf T, Ticknor K, George I (1984) Reactions between technetium in solution and iron-containing minerals under oxic and anoxic conditions, vol 246. Atomic Energy of Canada Ltd., Pinawa, pp 25–43
Vasilyeva GK, Strijakova ER, Shea PJ (2006) Use of activated carbon for soil bioremediation. Soil and water pollution monitoring, protection and remediation. Springer, Netherlands, pp 309–322
Vinsova H, Konirova R, Koudelkova M, Jedinakova-Krizova V (2004) Sorption of technetium and rhenium on natural sorbents under aerobic conditions. J Radioanal Nucl Chem 261:407–413. doi:10.1023/B:JRNC.0000034878.72774.53
Vinšová H, Vecerník P, Jedináková-Krízová V (2006) Sorption characteristics of 99Tc onto bentonite material with different additives under anaerobic conditions. Radiochim Acta 94:435–440. doi:10.1524/ract.2006.94.8.435
Volkert WA, Jurisson S (1996) Technetium-99m chelates as radiopharmaceuticals. Top Curr Chem 176:123–147
Wahl AC, Bonner NA (1951) Technetium. Radioactivity applied to chemistry. Wiley, New York, pp 185–190
Walton FB, Paquette J, Ross JPM, Lawrence WE (1986) Tc(IV) and Tc(VII) interactions with iron oxyhydroxides. Nucl Chem Waste Man 6:121–126. doi:10.1016/0191-815X(86)90049-5
Waste treatment & immobilization plant project (2013). Department of Energy. http://www.hanford.gov/page.cfm/WTP. Accessed May 2 2013
Wildung R, Routson R, Serne R, Garland T (1974) Pertechnetate, iodide, and methyl iodide retention by surface soils. Annual meeting of the American Agronomy Society, Chicago, Illinois. BNWL-SA–5195; CONF-741121—3. Battelle Pacific Northwest Labs., Richland, Wash. (USA)
Wildung RE, McFadden KM, Garland TR (1979) Technetium sources and behavior in the environment. J Environ Qual 8:156–161
Wildung RE, Gorby YA, Krupka KM, Hess NJ, Li S, Plymale AE, McKinley JP, Fredrickson JK (2000) Effect of electron donor and solution chemistry on products of dissimilatory reduction of technetium by Shewanella putrefaciens. Appl Environ Microbiol 66:2451–2460. doi:10.1128/AEM.66.6.2451-2460.2000
Wolfrum C, Bunzl K (1986) Sorption and desorption of technetium by humic substances under oxic and anoxic conditions. J Radioanal Nucl Chem 99:315–323. doi:10.1007/BF02037591
Wolthers M, Charlet L, Van der Linde PR, Rickard D, Van der Weijden CH (2005) Surface chemistry of disordered mackinawite (FeS). Geochim Cosmochim Acta 69:3469–3481. doi:10.1016/j.gca.2005.01.027
Yoshihara K (1996a) Recent studies on the nuclear chemistry of technetium. Top Curr Chem 176:1–16
Yoshihara K (1996b) Technetium in the environment. Top Curr Chem 176:123
Zachara JM, Heald SM, Jeon BH, Kukkadapu RK, Liu C, McKinley JP, Dohnalkova AC, Moore DA (2007) Reduction of pertechnetate [Tc(VII)] by aqueous Fe(II) and the nature of solid phase redox products. Geochim Cosmochim Acta 71:2137–2157. doi:10.1016/j.gca.2006.10.025
Zhuang H, Zeng J, Zhu L (1988) Sorption of radionuclides technetium and iodine on minerals. Radiochim Acta 44:143–146
Acknowledgements
This research was supported by the South Carolina Universities Research and Education Foundation, Contract No. DE-AC09-08SR22470.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Meena, A.H., Arai, Y. Environmental geochemistry of technetium. Environ Chem Lett 15, 241–263 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10311-017-0605-7
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10311-017-0605-7