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Hydromechanical coupling in geologic processes

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Abstract

Earth's porous crust and the fluids within it are intimately linked through their mechanical effects on each other. This paper presents an overview of such "hydromechanical" coupling and examines current understanding of its role in geologic processes. An outline of the theory of hydromechanics and rheological models for geologic deformation is included to place various analytical approaches in proper context and to provide an introduction to this broad topic for nonspecialists.

Effects of hydromechanical coupling are ubiquitous in geology, and can be local and short-lived or regional and very long-lived. Phenomena such as deposition and erosion, tectonism, seismicity, earth tides, and barometric loading produce strains that tend to alter fluid pressure. Resulting pressure perturbations can be dramatic, and many so-called "anomalous" pressures appear to have been created in this manner. The effects of fluid pressure on crustal mechanics are also profound. Geologic media deform and fail largely in response to effective stress, or total stress minus fluid pressure. As a result, fluid pressures control compaction, decompaction, and other types of deformation, as well as jointing, shear failure, and shear slippage, including events that generate earthquakes. By controlling deformation and failure, fluid pressures also regulate states of stress in the upper crust.

Advances in the last 80 years, including theories of consolidation, transient groundwater flow, and poroelasticity, have been synthesized into a reasonably complete conceptual framework for understanding and describing hydromechanical coupling. Full coupling in two or three dimensions is described using force balance equations for deformation coupled with a mass conservation equation for fluid flow. Fully coupled analyses allow hypothesis testing and conceptual model development. However, rigorous application of full coupling is often difficult because (1) the rheological behavior of geologic media is complex and poorly understood and (2) the architecture, mechanical properties and boundary conditions, and deformation history of most geologic systems are not well known. Much of what is known about hydromechanical processes in geologic systems is derived from simpler analyses that ignore certain aspects of solid-fluid coupling. The simplifications introduce error, but more complete analyses usually are not warranted. Hydromechanical analyses should thus be interpreted judiciously, with an appreciation for their limitations. Innovative approaches to hydromechanical modeling and obtaining critical data may circumvent some current limitations and provide answers to remaining questions about crustal processes and fluid behavior in the crust.

Résumé

La croûte poreuse de la Terre et les fluides associés sont intimement liés dans leurs effets mécaniques réciproques. Ce papier présente une analyse d'un tel couplage "hydromécanique" et examine l'état actuel des connaissances de son rôle dans les processus géologiques. La théorie de l'hydromécanique et des modèles rhéologiques pour la déformation géologique est exposée de façon à introduire différentes approches analytiques dans le contexte considéré et à fournir aux non spécialistes une introduction à ce vaste sujet.

Les effets du couplage hydromécanique sont ubiquistes en géologie; ils peuvent être locaux et de courte durée ou régionaux et de longue durée. Des phénomènes tels que le dépôt et l'érosion, la tectonique, la séismicité, les marées terrestres et la pression barométrique produisent des contraintes qui tendent à modifier la pression du fluide. Les perturbations de pression résultantes peuvent être considérables, et de nombreuses pressions dites anormales paraissent avoir été créées de cette façon. Les effets de la pression des fluides sur les mécanismes crustaux sont également profonds. Les milieux géologiques se déforment et faiblissent considérablement en réponse à la contrainte efficace, c'est-à-dire la contrainte totale moins la pression du fluide. Il en résulte que les pressions de fluide contrôlent la compaction, la décompaction et d'autres types de déformations, telles que l'ouverture des fissures, la rupture et le glissement par cisaillement, y compris les évènements qui provoquent des séismes. En contrôlant la déformation et la rupture, les pressions de fluide régulent également les contraintes dans la croûte supérieure.

Les progrès réalisés au cours des 80 dernières années, dont les théories de la consolidation, de l'écoulement souterrain transitoire et de la poro-élasticité, ont été synthétisées dans un ensemble conceptuel cohérent qui permet de comprendre et de décrire le couplage hydromécanique. Le couplage complet en 2 ou 3 dimensions est décrit à partir d'équations du bilan de la déformation associées à une équation de conservation de la masse pour l'écoulement des fluides. Des analyses complètement couplées permettent de tester des hypothèses et de développer des modèles conceptuels. Cependant, l'application rigoureuse du couplage complet est souvent difficile parce que (1) le comportement rhéologique du milieu géologique est complexe et mal connu, et (2) on connaît mal les conditions d'architecture, de propriétés mécaniques et aux limites, ainsi que l'histoire de la déformation de la plupart des systèmes géologiques. L'essentiel de ce que l'on connaît sur les processus hydromécaniques dans les systèmes géologiques provient d'analyses plus simples qui ignorent certains aspects du couplage solide-fluide. Les simplifications introduisent une erreur, mais des analyses plus complètes ne sont habituellement pas justifiées. Les analyses hydromécaniques doivent donc être interprétées de façon judicieuse, avec une appréciation de leurs limites. Des approches innovantes de modélisation hydromécanique et d'obtention de données critiques peuvent contourner quelques limitations courantes et fournir des réponses aux questions en suspens concernant les processus crustaux et le comportement du fluide dans la croûte.

Resumen

La corteza porosa de la Tierra y sus fluidos interiores están íntimamente ligados por efectos mecánicos mutuos. Este artículo repasa este acoplamiento "hidromecánico" y examina el conocimiento actual de su papel en los procesos geológicos. Se incluye un bosquejo de la teoría de la hidromecánica y de los modelos reológicos de deformación geológica con el fin de contextualizar los diversos enfoques analíticos y de proporcionar una introducción a este extenso campo para los no especialistas.

Los efectos del acoplamiento hidromecánico son ubicuos en geología; pueden ser locales y breves o regionales y de larga duración. Fenómenos como la deposición y erosión, movimientos tectónicos y sísmicos, mareas terrestres y la carga barométrica producen deformaciones que tienden a alterar las presiones de los fluidos. Las perturbaciones resultantes en la presión pueden ser enormes, y muchas de las denominadas presiones "anómalas" parecen haber sido originadas de esta forma. Los efectos de la presión del fluido en la mecánica de la corteza terrestre son también profundos. Los medios geológicos se deforman y fallan ampliamente en respuesta a la tensión efectiva, equivalente a la tensión total menos la presión del fluido. Como consecuencia, las presiones del fluido controlan la compactación, descompactación y otros tipos de deformación, así como el diaclasado, las cizallas y las cizallas por deslizamiento, incluyendo eventos que generan terremotos. Controlando la deformación y el fallo, las presiones del fluido también regulan los estados tensionales en la corteza superior.

Se ha sintetizado los avances de los últimos 80 años, incluyendo las teorías de consolidación, flujo transitorio de aguas subterráneas y poroelasticidad en un marco conceptual razonablemente completo con el fin de comprender y describir el acoplamiento hidromecánico. Se describe el acoplamiento total en dos o tres dimensiones mediante ecuaciones de balance de fuerzas para la deformación acopladas con una ecuación de conservación de masa para el flujo del fluido. Los análisis completamente acoplados permiten verificar hipótesis y desarrollar modelos conceptuales. Sin embargo, la aplicación rigurosa de un acoplamiento total es a menudo difícil porque (1) el comportamiento reológico de los medios geológicos es complejo y apenas entendido, y (2) la arquitectura, propiedades mecánicas y condiciones de contorno, y la historia de deformación de la mayoría de sistemas geológicos, no son bien conocidas. Mucho de lo que se sabe de los procesos hidromecánicos en sistemas geológicos procede de análisis más sencillos que ignoran ciertos aspectos del acoplamiento sólido-fluido. Las simplificaciones introducen errores, pero habitualmente no se garantiza que haya análisis más completos. Así, los análisis hidromecánicos deberían ser interpretados juiciosamente, siendo conscientes de sus limitaciones. La adopción de enfoques innovadores de modelación hidromecánica y la obtención de datos críticos podrían superar las limitaciones actuales y proporcionar respuestas a las cuestiones no aclaradas sobre los procesos en la corteza terrestre y sobre el comportamiento de los fluidos en su interior.

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Acknowledgements

Evelyn Roeloffs, Mike Ryan, Alden Provost, Eyal Stanislavsky, and two anonymous reviewers provided helpful comments on this manuscript, although responsibility for any errors remains with me. This work was made possible by the National Research Program of the US Geological Survey.

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Appendix

Appendix

Notation

a :

compaction factor of Terzaghi equivalent to one-dimensional specific storage (S S ) [L−1]. Also half-length of a fracture [L].

c :

flaw radius in porous medium [L].

e :

void ratio [dimensionless].

e σ max :

void ratio corresponding to \(\sigma '_{t\;\max } \) [dimensionless].

g :

gravitational acceleration [L/T2].

h :

hydraulic head [L].

h′:

= p/(ρg)−(l s z); excess hydraulic head [L].

k or k ij :

second-order permeability tensor [L2].

k :

permeability scalar [L2].

l :

measure of the size of a geologic domain representing the shortest distance from the domain center to a boundary [L].

l s :

elevation of land surface [L].

m :

mass of pore fluid per volume of porous medium [M/L3].

n :

porosity [dimensionless].

n ir :

"irreducible" porosity [dimensionless].

n min :

minimum porosity [dimensionless].

n s :

porosity at ground surface [dimensionless].

p :

fluid pressure [M/T2L] (depending on context, may be either a difference or an absolute quantity).

p′:

fluid pressure in excess of hydrostatic [M/T2L] (depending on context, may be either a difference or an absolute quantity).

q :

pore fluid specific flux vector [L/T].

q n :

component of q normal to a domain boundary [L/T].

q rel :

= q+n v s ; specific flux vector relative to a fixed coordinate system [L/T].

t :

time [T].

t :

traction, or force vector per unit area on a domain boundary [M/T2L].

u, v, w :

displacements in the x, y, z coordinate directions [L].

u :

= (u, v, w) displacement vector [L].

v s :

sediment velocity vector [L/T].

x, y, z :

distance in coordinate direction (horizontal, horizontal, vertical; z positive upward) [L].

A f :

fracture cross-sectional area [L2].

\( {\rm C}_{ijkl}^{c1} \) :

fourth-order elastic coefficient tensor for Kelvin body [M/T2L].

\( {\rm C}_{ijkl}^{c2} \) :

fourth-order viscous coefficient tensor for Kelvin body [M/TL].

\( {\rm C}_{ijkl}^e \) :

fourth-order elastic coefficient tensor [M/T2L].

\( {\rm C}_{ijkl}^{ep} \) :

fourth-order elastoplastic coefficient tensor [M/T2L].

\( {\rm{C}}_{ijkl}^{{\rm{v}}ep} \) :

fourth-order visco-elastoplastic coefficient tensor [M/T2L].

D h :

hydraulic diffusivity [L2/T].

G :

shear modulus of porous medium [M/T2L].

G T :

geothermal gradient [degrees/L].

J :

strength of fluid source [M/TL3].

J d :

=−(1−n)−1ρ(Dn/Dt); virtual fluid source due to diagenetic pore collapse [M/TL3].

K :

drained bulk modulus of the porous medium [M/T2L].

K eff :

effective drained bulk modulus of the porous medium [M/T2L].

K′:

drained confined (vertical) modulus of porous medium [M/T2L].

K eff :

effective drained confined (vertical) modulus of porous medium [M/T2L].

K f :

bulk modulus of pore fluid [M/T2L].

K s :

bulk modulus of solids in the porous medium [M/T2L].

K Ic :

fracture tip critical stress intensity factor [M/T2L1/2].

M :

slope of critical state plane in Cam-clay model [dimensionless].

S s :

one-dimensional specific storage [Eq. (40)] [L−1].

S s3 :

three-dimensional specific storage [Eq. (21)] [L−1].

\( {\rm S}_{s3}^\prime \) :

modified three-dimensional specific storage [Eq. (25)] [L-1].

T :

temperature [degrees].

Y :

porous medium flaw shape factor [dimensionless].

α:

=1−K/K s [dimensionless].

α T :

linear thermal expansivity of porous medium [degrees−1].

\( \hat \alpha _{\rm T} \) :

bulk thermal expansivity of porous medium [degrees−1].

α Tf :

bulk thermal expansivity of pore fluid [degrees−1].

α Tp :

bulk thermal expansivity of pores [degrees−1].

β:

three-dimensional loading efficiency (Skempton's coefficient) [Eq. (22)] [dimensionless].

γ, γ1, γ2 :

Athy porosity-loss coefficients for compaction [T2L/M].

γ d :

Athy porosity-gain coefficient for decompaction [T2L/M].

δ ij :

Kronecker delta, equal to zero when ij and equal to one when i=j [dimensionless].

ε:

general designation of strain [dimensionless].

ε ij :

second-order strain tensor, positive for contraction; i=j indicates contractional/extensional component; ij=xx, yy indicates horizontal strain, ij=zz indicates vertical strain; ij indicates shear component [dimensionless].

\( \varepsilon _{kl}^{c1} \) :

second-order elastic strain tensor for Kelvin body [dimensionless].

\( \dot \varepsilon _{kl}^{c2} \) :

second-order rate of viscous strain tensor for Kelvin body [T−1].

\( \varepsilon _{kl}^d \) :

second-order diagenetic strain tensor [dimensionless].

\( \varepsilon _{kl}^e \) :

second-order elastic strain tensor [dimensionless].

\( \varepsilon _{kl}^{ep} \) :

second-order elastoplastic strain tensor [dimensionless].

\( \varepsilon _{kl}^p \) :

second-order plastic strain tensor [dimensionless].

\( \varepsilon _{kl}^v \) :

second-order viscous strain tensor [dimensionless].

\( \dot \varepsilon _{kl}^{vep} \) :

second-order rate of visco-elastoplastic strain tensor [T−1].

ε kk :

xx yy zz ; volumetric strain (positive for contraction) [dimensionless].

\( \varepsilon _{kk}^p \) :

plastic component of volumetric strain (positive for contraction) [dimensionless].

\( \dot \varepsilon _{kk} \) :

rate of volumetric strain [T−1].

\( \varepsilon _{shear}^p \) :

plastic component of shear strain [dimensionless].

ε T :

sum of lateral strains due to earth tides [dimensionless].

ζ:

=[β(1+ν)]/[3(1−ν)−2αβ(1−2ν)]; one-dimensional loading efficiency [dimensionless].

κ:

hydraulic conductivity [L/T].

κ :

hydraulic conductivity tensor [L/T].

κ cc :

virgin compression parameter in Cam-clay model [dimensionless].

λ:

=2α(1−2ν)/3(1− ν) [dimensionless].

λ cc :

swelling-recompression parameter in Cam-clay model [dimensionless].

µ:

dynamic viscosity of pore fluid [M/LT].

µ*:

coefficient of strength or coefficient of static friction of the porous medium [dimensionless].

µ ref :

reference value of dynamic viscosity of pore fluid [M/LT].

µ rel :

ref /µ [dimensionless].

ν :

Poisson's ratio [dimensionless].

ξ:

dilatancy factor [dimensionless].

ρ:

density of pore fluid [M/L3].

ρ′:

=ρ/ρ ref [dimensionless].

ρ ref :

reference value of density of pore fluid [M/L3].

ρ rel :

=(ρ−ρ ref )/ρ ref [dimensionless].

ρ s :

density of solid grains in porous medium [M/L3].

σ:

general designation of stress [M/T2L].

σ d :

1−σ3; differential stress [M/T2L].

\( \sigma _d^\prime \) :

\( = \sigma '_1 - \sigma '_3 \); differential effective stress [M/T2L].

σ ij :

second order stress tensor, positive for compression; i=j indicates normal stress, ij=xx, yy indicates horizontal stress, ij=zz indicates vertical stress; ij indicates shear stress [M/T2L] (depending on context, may be either a difference or an absolute quantity).

σ kk :

xx yy zz sum of normal stresses or volumetric stress (positive for compression) [M/T2L] (depending on context, may be either a difference or an absolute quantity).

σ n :

stress normal to a shear plane [M/T2L].

σ t :

=(σ xx yy zz )/3, mean total stress; positive for compression [M/T2L] (depending on context, may be either a difference or an absolute quantity).

\( \sigma _t^\prime \) :

\( = \left( {\sigma '_1 + \sigma '_2 + \sigma '_2 } \right)/3\), mean total of principal effective stress [M/T2L](depending on context, may be either a difference or an absolute quantity).

\( \sigma _{t\;\max }^\prime \) :

maximum previous value of \(\sigma '_t \) experienced by a porous medium [M/T2L].

\( \sigma _{ij}^\prime \) :

second order effective stress tensor; positive for compression; ij=xx, yy indicates horizontal effective stress, ij=zz indicates vertical effective stress [M/T2L] (depending on context, may be either a difference or an absolute quantity).

\( \sigma _{ij}^{\prime\prime} \) :

\( = \sigma '_{ij} - \left\{ {\left[ {2G\alpha _T \left( {1 + \nu } \right)} \right]/\left( {1 - 2\nu } \right)} \right\}T\delta _{ij} \); second-order thermally compensated effective stress tensor, positive for compression; ij=xx, yy indicates horizontal compensated effective stress, ij=zz indicates vertical compensated effective stress [M/T2L] (depending on context, may be either a difference or an absolute quantity).

\( \sigma _{zz\;\left( {\max } \right)}^\prime \) :

maximum vertical effective stress the formation has experienced [M/T2L].

\( \sigma _{kk}^\prime \) :

\( = \sigma '_{xx} + \sigma '_{yy} + \sigma '_{zz} \left[ {{\rm M}/{\rm T}^2 {\rm L}} \right]\) (depending on context, may be either a difference or an absolute quantity).

\( \sigma _1 ,\sigma _3 \) :

greatest and least principal stresses [M/T2L].

\( \sigma' _1 ,\sigma' _3 \) :

greatest and least effective principal stresses [M/T2L].

\( \dot \sigma _{ij}^\prime \) :

rate of change of the effective stress tensor [M/T3L].

\( \dot \sigma _{ij}^{\prime r} \) :

effective stress relaxation rate tensor [M/T3L].

τ:

component of shear stress on an arbitrarily oriented plane [M/T2L] (depending on context, may be either a difference or an absolute quantity).

ω:

creep deformation coefficient for porous medium [TL/M].

Λ:

Tf − α Tp ; thermal response coefficient of fluid-saturated porous medium [degrees−1].

Λ′:

T f +(λ/n T − α Tp ; modified thermal response coefficient of fluid-saturated porous medium [degrees−1].

Operators

∇:

\({\partial \over {\partial x}},\;{\partial \over {\partial y}},\;{\partial \over {\partial z}}\)

∇·:

\({\partial \over {\partial x}} + {\partial \over {\partial y}} + {\partial \over {\partial z}}\)

2 :

\({{\partial ^2 } \over {\partial x^2 }} + {{\partial ^2 } \over {\partial y^2 }} + {{\partial ^2 } \over {\partial z^2 }}\)

():

time derivative of ( ).

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Neuzil, C.E. Hydromechanical coupling in geologic processes. Hydrogeology Journal 11, 41–83 (2003). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10040-002-0230-8

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