Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Immigrant status, antenatal depressive symptoms, and frequency and source of violence: what's the relationship?

  • Original Article
  • Published:
Archives of Women's Mental Health Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

This study describes the prevalence of violence during pregnancy and examines the association between the experience of violence since the beginning of pregnancy and the prevalence of antenatal depressive symptoms while taking into account immigrant status. Cross-sectional study including 5,162 pregnant women attending Montreal hospitals for antenatal care was conducted, with 1,400 being born outside of Canada. CES-D scale was used to evaluate depression at 24–26 weeks of pregnancy. The Abuse Assessment Screen scale was used to determine the frequency and severity of violence since the beginning of pregnancy. Relationship with abuser was also considered. All modeling was done using logistic regressions. Threats were the most frequent type of violence, with 63 % happening more than once. Long-term immigrant women reported the highest prevalence of all types of violence (7.7 %). Intimate partner violence (IPV) (15 %) was most frequently reported among the poorest pregnant women. Strong associations exist between more than one episode of abuse and depression (POR = 5.21 [3.73; 7.23], and IPV and depression [POR = 5.81 [4.19; 8.08]. Immigrant status did not change the associations between violence and depression. Violence against pregnant women is not rare in Canada, and it is associated with antenatal depressive symptoms. These findings support future development of perinatal screening for violence, follow-up, and a culturally sensitive referral system.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Fig. 1
Fig. 2

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Abu-Ras W (2007) Cultural beliefs and service utilization by battered Arab immigrant women. Violence Against Women 13(10):1002–1028. doi:10.1177/1077801207306019

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Adames SB, Campbell R (2005) Immigrant Latinas conceptualizations of intimate partner violence. Violence Against Women 11(10):1341–1364. doi:10.1177/1077801205280191

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ahmad F, Ali M, Stewart DE (2005) Spousal-abuse among Canadian immigrant women. J Immigr Health 7(4):239–246

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Anderson JE, Abraham M, Bruessow DM, Coleman RD, McCarthy KC, Harris-Odimgbe T, Tong CK (2008) Cross-cultural perspectives on intimate partner violence. JAAPA 21(4):36–44

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Barrera M (1981) Social support in the adjustment of pregnant adolescents: assessment issues. In: Gottieb B (ed) Social network and social support. Sage, Beverly Hills, pp 69–96

    Google Scholar 

  • Bowen E, Heron J, Waylen A, Wolke D, the Ast (2005) Domestic violence risk during and after pregnancy: findings from a British longitudinal study. BJOG: Int J Obstet Gynaecol 112(8):1083–1089. doi:10.1111/j.1471-0528.2005.00653.x

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cambell JC, Kub J, Belknap RA, Templin TN (1997) Predictors of depression in battered women. Violence Against Women 3(3):271–293. doi:10.1177/1077801297003003004

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Carlson BE, Worden AP, van Ryn M, Bachman R (2000) Violence against women: synthesis of research for service providers final report to the National Institute of Justice, vol NCJ 199578. Department of Justice, National Institute of Justice, Washington, DC

    Google Scholar 

  • Chambliss LR (2008) Intimate partner violence and its implication for pregnancy. Clin Obstet Gynecol 51:385–397

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cohen MM, Maclean H (2003) Violence against women. Women's health surveillance report: a multidimensional look at the health of Canadian women. Canadian Institute for Health Information, Ottawa

    Google Scholar 

  • Du Mont J, Forte T, Cohen MM, Hyman I, Romans S (2005) Changing help-seeking rates for intimate partner violence in Canada. Women Health 41(1):1–19. doi:10.1300/J013v41n01_01

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dunn LL, Oths KS (2004) Prenatal predictors of intimate partner abuse. J Obstet Gynecol Neonatal Nurs 33(1):54–63. doi:10.1177/0884217503261080

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dutton MA, Green BL, Kaltman SI, Roesch DM, Zeffiro TA, Krause ED (2006) Intimate partner violence, PTSD, and adverse health outcomes. J Interpersonal Violence 21(7):955–968. doi:10.1177/0886260506289178

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ehounoux NZ, Zunzunegui M-V, Seguin L, Nikiema B, Gauvin L (2009) Duration of lack of money for basic needs and growth delay in the Quebec Longitudinal Study of Child Development birth cohort. J Epidemiol Community Health 63(1):45–49. doi:10.1136/jech.2007.072157

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Flach C, Leese M, Heron J, Evans J, Feder G, Sharp D, Howard LM (2011) Antenatal domestic violence, maternal mental health and subsequent child behaviour: a cohort study. BJOG: Int J Obstet Gynaecol 118(11):1383–1391. doi:10.1111/j.1471-0528.2011.03040.x

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gazmararian J, Lazorick S, Spitz A, Ballard T, Saltzman L, Marks J (1996) Prevalence of violence against pregnant women. JAMA 275(24):1915–1920

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Giovanni AF (1983) Assessing depressive symptoms across cultures: Italian validation of the CES-D self-rating scale. J Clin Psychol 39(2):249–251

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Guo SF, Wu JL, Qu CY, Yan RY (2004) Physical and sexual abuse of women before, during, and after pregnancy. Int J Gynecol Obstet 84(3):281–286

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hazen AL, Soriano FI (2007) Experiences with intimate partner violence among Latina women. Violence Against Women 13(6):562–582. doi:10.1177/1077801207301558

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hyman I, Forte T, Du Mont J, Romans S, Cohen MM (2006a) Help-seeking behavior for intimate partner violence among racial minority women in Canada. Women's Health Issues 19(2):101–108

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hyman I, Forte T, Mont JD, Romans S, Cohen MM (2006b) The association between length of stay in Canada and intimate partner violence among immigrant women. Am J Public Health 96(4):654–659. doi:10.2105/ajph.2004.046409

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hyman I, Forte T, Mont JD, Romans S, Cohen MM (2006c) Help-seeking rates for intimate partner violence (IPV) among Canadian immigrant women. Health Care Women Int 27(8):682–694. doi:10.1080/07399330600817618

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Immigration: the changing face of Canada (The Canadian Chamber of Commerce 2009). Policy Brief- Economic Policy series, pp 1-13

  • Janssen PA, Holt VL, Sugg NK, Emanuel I, Critchlow CM, Henderson AD (2003) Intimate partner violence and adverse pregnancy outcomes: a population-based study. Am J Obstet Gynecol 188(5):1341–1347

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kasturirangan A, Krishnan S, Riger S (2004) The impact of culture and minority status on women's experience of domestic violence. Trauma Violence Abuse 5(4):318–332. doi:10.1177/1524838004269487

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kendall-Tackett KA (2007) Violence against women and the perinatal period. Trauma Violence Abuse 8(3):344–353. doi:10.1177/1524838007304406

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kramer MS, Goulet L, Lydon J, Séguin L, McNamara H, Dassa C, Platt RW, Fong Chen M, Gauthier H, Genest J, Kahn S, Libman M, Rozen R, Masse A, Miner L, Asselin G, Benjamin A, Klein J, Koren G (2001) Socio-economic disparities in preterm birth: causal pathways and mechanisms. Paediatr Perinat Epidemiol 15:104–123. doi:10.1046/j.1365-3016.2001.00012.x

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • La Flair LN, Bradshaw CP, Campbell JC (2012) Intimate partner violence/abuse and depressive symptoms among female health care workers: longitudinal findings. Women's Health Issues 22(1):e53–59

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Latta RE, Goodman LA (2005) Considering the interplay of cultural context and service provision in intimate partner violence. Violence Against Women 11(11):1441–1464. doi:10.1177/1077801205280273

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Li D, Liu L, Odoul I (2009) Presence of depressive symptoms during early pregnancy and the risk of preterm delivery: a prospective cohort study. Human Reprod 24(1):146–153

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lobel M (1997) The Prenatal Life Event Scale (PLES). State University of New York at Stony Brook, Stony Brook

    Google Scholar 

  • Lobel M, Dunkel-Schetter C, Scrimshaw SCM (1992) Prenatal maternal stress and prematurity: a prospective study of socioeconomically disadvantaged women. Health Psychol 11(1):32–40

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ludermir AB, Lewis G, Valongueiro SA, de Araújo TVB, Araya R (2010) Violence against women by their intimate partner during pregnancy and postnatal depression: a prospective cohort study. Lancet 376(9744):903–910

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • MacMillan H, Wathen C, Jamieson E et al (2009) Screening for intimate partner violence in health care settings: a randomized trial. JAMA: J Am Med Assoc 302(5):493–501

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Marcus SM, Flynn HA, Blow FC, Barry KL (2003) Depressive symptoms among pregnant women screened in obstetrics settings. J Women's Health 12(4):373–380. doi:10.1089/154099903765448880

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McFarlane J, Parker B, Soeken K, Bullock L (1992) Assessing for abuse during pregnancy. JAMA: J Am Med Assoc 267(23):3176–3178. doi:10.1001/jama.1992.03480230068030

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Meisel J, Chandler D, Rienzi BM (2003) Domestic violence prevalence and effects on employment in two California TANF populations. Violence Against Women 9(10):1191–1212

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Melville JL, Gavin A, Guo Y, Fan M-Y, Katon WJ (2010) Depressive disorders during pregnancy: prevalence and risk factors in a large urban sample. Obstetrics & Gynecology 116 (5):1064-1070 1010.1097/AOG.1060b1013e3181f1060b1060a

    Google Scholar 

  • Miszkurka M, Goulet L, Zunzunegui MV (2010) Contributions of immigration to depressive symptoms among pregnant women in Canada. Can J Public Health 101(5):358–364

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Morton DJ, Schoenrock SA, Stanford EP, Peddecord KM, Molgaard CA (1989) Use of the CES-D among a community sample of older Mexican-Americans. J Cross-Cult Gerontol 4(4):289–306

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nguyen HT, Kitner-Triolo M, Evans MK, Zonderman AB (2004) Factorial invariance of the CES-D in low socioeconomic status African Americans compared with a nationally representative sample. Psychiatry Res 126(2):177–187

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Osborne LN, Rhodes JE (2001) The role of life stress and social support in the adjustment of sexually victimized pregnant and parenting minority adolescents. Am J Community Psychol 29(6):833–849

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pico-Alfonso MA, Garcia-Linares MI, Celda-Navarro N, Blasco-Ros CN, Echeburúa E, Martinez M (2006) The impact of physical, psychological, and sexual intimate male partner violence on women's mental health: depressive symptoms, posttraumatic stress disorder, state anxiety, and suicide. J Women's Health 15(5):599–611. doi:10.1089/jwh.2006.15.599

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rabin RF, Jennings JM, Campbell JC, Bair-Merritt MH (2009) Intimate partner violence screening tools. Am J Prev Med 36(5):439–445

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rachana C, Suraiya K, Hisham A-S, Abdulaziz A-M, Hai A (2002) Prevalence and complications of physical violence during pregnancy. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol 103(1):26–29

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Radloff LS (1977) The CES-D scale: a self-report depression scale for research in the general population. Appl Psychol Meas 1(3):385–401. doi:10.1177/014662167700100306

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Raj A, Silverman J (2002) Intimate partner violence against immigrant women: the roles of culture, context, and legal immigrant status on intimate partner violence. Violence Against Women 8:367–398

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Roberts RE (1980) Reliability of the CES-D scale in different ethnic contexts. Psychiatry Res 2(2):125–134

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rodriguez MA, Heilemann MV, Fielder E, Ang A, Nevarez F, Mangione CM (2008) Intimate partner violence, depression, and PTSD among pregnant Latina women. Ann Fam Med 6(1):44–52. doi:10.1370/afm.743

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sharps PW, Laughon K, Giangrande SK (2007) Intimate partner violence and the childbearing year: maternal and infant health consequences. Trauma Violence Abuse 8(2):105–116. doi:10.1177/1524838007302594

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sharps PW, Campbell J, Baty ML, Walker KS, Bair-Merritt MH (2008) Current evidence on perinatal home visiting and intimate partner violence. J Obstet Gynecol Neonatal Nurs 37(4):480–491. doi:10.1111/j.1552-6909.2008.00267.x

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Silverman M, Loudon H (2010) Antenatal reports of pre-pregnancy abuse is associated with symptoms of depression in the postpartum period. Arch Women's Mental Health 13(5):411–415

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stahl D, Sum CF, Lum SS, Liow PH, Chan YH, Verma S, Chua HC, Chong SA (2008) Screening for depressive symptoms: validation of the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale (CES-D) in a multiethnic group of patients with diabetes in Singapore. Diabetes Care 31(6):1118–1119. doi:10.2337/dc07-2019

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Stewart DE (1994) Incidence of postpartum abuse in women with a history of abuse during pregnancy. CMAJ 151(11):1601–1604

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Stewart DE, Cecutti A (1993) Physical abuse in pregnancy. Can Med Assoc J 149(9):1257–1263

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Taillieu TL, Brownridge DA (2010) Violence against pregnant women: prevalence, patterns, risk factors, theories, and directions for future research. Aggress Violent Behav 15(1):14–35

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ting L (2010) Out of Africa: coping strategies of African immigrant women survivors of intimate partner violence. Health Care Women Int 31(4):345–364. doi:10.1080/07399330903348741

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tiwari A, Chan KL, Fong D, Leung WC, Brownridge DA, Lam H, Wong B, Lam CM, Chau F, Chan A, Cheung KB, Ho PC (2008) The impact of psychological abuse by an intimate partner on the mental health of pregnant women. BJOG: Int J Obstet Gynaecol 115(3):377–384. doi:10.1111/j.1471-0528.2007.01593.x

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Vissandjee B, Carignan P, Bourdeau-Marchand M (1999) Les nouvelles immigrantes et la sante. L'infirmiere Canadienne 95(4):35–41

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Vissandjee B, Desmeules M, Cao Z, Abdool S, Kazanjian A (2004) Integrating ethnicity and migration as determinants of Canadian women's health. BMC Women's Health 4(Suppl 1):S32

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wieclaw J, Agerbo E, Mortensen PB, Burr H, Tüchsen F, Bonde JP (2006) Work related violence and threats and the risk of depression and stress disorders. J Epidemiol Community Health 60(9):771–775. doi:10.1136/jech.2005.042986

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zelkowitz P, Schinazi J, Katofsky L, Saucier JF, Valenzuela M, Westreich R, Dayan J (2004) Factors associated with depression in pregnant immigrant women. Transcultural Psychiatry 41(4):445–464. doi:10.1177/1363461504047929

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Competing interest

None to declare.

Funding statement

This work was supported by the Perinatal Epidemiological Research Initiative Program from the March of Dimes Birth Defects Foundation, the Canadian Institutes of Health Research (CIHR) [20-FYO4-38].

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Social and Preventive Medicine, University of Montreal, 1430 boul. du Mont-Royal, Outremont, Montreal, QC, Canada, H2V 4P3

    Malgorzata Miszkurka, Maria Victoria Zunzunegui & Lise Goulet

  2. Institut de recherche en santé publique, Université de Montréal (IRSPUM), 1420, boul. du Mont-Royal, Bureau 3110, Montréal, QC, Canada, H2V 4P3

    Maria Victoria Zunzunegui & Lise Goulet

Authors
  1. Malgorzata Miszkurka
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Maria Victoria Zunzunegui
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Lise Goulet
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Malgorzata Miszkurka.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Miszkurka, M., Zunzunegui, M.V. & Goulet, L. Immigrant status, antenatal depressive symptoms, and frequency and source of violence: what's the relationship?. Arch Womens Ment Health 15, 387–396 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00737-012-0298-7

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00737-012-0298-7

Keywords

Search

Navigation