Skip to main content
Log in

Measured body composition and geometrical data of four “virtual family” members for thermoregulatory modeling

  • Original Paper
  • Published:
International Journal of Biometeorology Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

The purpose of this paper is to develop a database of tissue composition, distribution, volume, surface area, and skin thickness from anatomically correct human models, the virtual family. These models were based on high-resolution magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of human volunteers, including two adults (male and female) and two children (boy and girl). In the segmented image dataset, each voxel is associated with a label which refers to a tissue type that occupies up that specific cubic millimeter of the body. The tissue volume was calculated from the number of the voxels with the same label. Volumes of 24 organs in body and volumes of 7 tissues in 10 specific body regions were calculated. Surface area was calculated from the collection of voxels that are touching the exterior air. Skin thicknesses were estimated from its volume and surface area. The differences between the calculated and original masses were about 3 % or less for tissues or organs that are important to thermoregulatory modeling, e.g., muscle, skin, and fat. This accurate database of body tissue distributions and geometry is essential for the development of human thermoregulatory models. Data derived from medical imaging provide new effective tools to enhance thermal physiology research and gain deeper insight into the mechanisms of how the human body maintains heat balance.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Ackerman MJ (1999) The visible human project: a resource for education. Acad Med 74:667–670

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Arens EA, Zhang H (2006) The skin’s role in human thermoregulation and comfort. In: Pan N, Gibson P (eds) Thermal and moisture transport in fibrous materials. Woodhead Publishing Ltd., Cambridge, pp. 560–602

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Bhowmik A, Repaka R, Mishra SC (2014) Thermal analysis of the increasing subcutaneous fat thickness within the human skin—a numerical study. Numerical Heat Transfer, Part A: Applications 67:313–329

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brinck H, Werner J (1994) Efficiency function: improvement of classical bioheat approach. J Appl Physiol (1985) 77:1617–1622

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Charkoudian N (2003) Skin blood flow in adult human thermoregulation: how it works, when it does not, and why. Mayo Clin Proc 78:603–612

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Christ A, Kainz W, Hahn EG, Honegger K, Zefferer M, Neufeld E, Rascher W, Janka R, Bautz W, Chen J, Kiefer B, Schmitt P, Hollenbach HP, Shen J, Oberle M, Szczerba D, Kam A, Guag JW, Kuster N (2010) The virtual family—development of surface-based anatomical models of two adults and two children for dosimetric simulations. Phys Med Biol 55:N23–N38

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dennis BH, Eberhart RC, Dulikravich GS, Radons SW (2003) Finite-element simulation of cooling of realistic 3-D human head and neck. J Biomech Eng 125:832–840

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Diller KR, Zhu L (2009) Hypothermia therapy for brain injury. Annu Rev Biomed Eng 11:135–162. doi:10.1146/annurev-bioeng-061008-124908.:135-162

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Du BD, Du BOISEF (1916) Clinical calorimetry: tenth paper a formula to estimate the approximate surface area if height and weight be known. Arch Intern Med XVII:863–871

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ferreira MS, Yanagihara JI (2009) A transient three-dimensional heat transfer model of the human body. International Communications in Heat and Mass Transfer 36:718–724

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Fiala D, Lomas KJ, Stohrer M (1999) A computer model of human thermoregulation for a wide range of environmental conditions: the passive system. J Appl Physiol 87:1957–1972

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gagge AP, Fobelets AP, Berglund L (1986) A standard predictive index of human response to the thermal environment. ASHRAE Trans; (United States) 92

  • Gordon RG, Roemer RB, Horvath SM (1976) A mathematical model of the human temperature regulatory system—transient cold exposure response. IEEE Trans Biomed Eng 23:434–444

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Havenith G, Fiala D (2015) Thermal indices and thermophysiological modeling for heat stress. Compr Physiol 6:255–302

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Huizenga C, Hui Z, Arens E (2001) A model of human physiology and comfort for assessing complex thermal environments. Build Environ 36:691–699

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jendritzky G, de Dear R, Havenith G (2012) UTCI—why another thermal index? Int J Biometeorol 56:421–428

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kakuta N, Yokoyama S, Nakamura M, Mabuchi K (2001) Estimation of radiative heat transfer using a geometric human model. Biomedical Engineering, IEEE Transactions on 48:324–331

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kingma BR, Vosselman MJ, Frijns AJ, van Steenhoven AA, van Marken Lichtenbelt WD (2013) Incorporating neurophysiological concepts in mathematical thermoregulation models. Int J Biometeorol

  • Kobayashi Y, Tanabe S (2013) Development of JOS-2 human thermoregulation model with detailed vascular system. Build Environ 66:1–10

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • MacLeod T, Rioux TP, Yokota M, Li P, Corner BD, Xu X (2014) Individualized human CAD models: anthropometric morphing and body tissue layering. Technical report T14–6, ADA609587. US Army Research Institute of Environmental Medicine, Natick

    Google Scholar 

  • McDowell MA, Fryar CD, Hirsch R, Ogden CL (2005) Anthropometric reference data for children and adults: U.S. population, 1999–20002. 257. Advanced data from vital and health statistics no. 361411–426

  • Mullikin JC, Verbeek PW (1993) Surface area estimation of digitized planes. Bioimaging 1:6–16

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nelson DA, Charbonnel S, Curran AR, Marttila EA, Fiala D, Mason PA, Ziriax JM (2009) A high-resolution voxel model for predicting local tissue temperatures in humans subjected to warm and hot environments. J Biomech Eng 131:041003

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Shabat YB, Shitzer A, Fiala D (2014) Modified wind chill temperatures determined by a whole body thermoregulation model and human-based facial convective coefficients. Int J Biometeorol 58:1007–1015

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shitzer A, Arens E, Zhang H (2015) Compilation of basal metabolic and blood perfusion rates in various multi-compartment, whole-body thermoregulation models. Int J Biometeorol

  • Stolwijk JAJ, Hardy JD (2011) Control of body temperature. Compr Physiol 2011, Supplement 26: Handbook of Physiology, Reactions to Environmental Agents: 45–68. First published in print 1977. DOI: 10.1002/cphy.cp090104. John Wiley & Sons, Inc

  • Takada S, Kobayashi H, Matsushita T (2009) Thermal model of human body fitted with individual characteristics of body temperature regulation. Build Environ 44:463–470

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tikuisis P (1997) Prediction of survival time at sea based on observed body cooling rates. Aviat Space Environ Med 68:441–448

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Tikuisis P (2003) Heat balance precedes stabilization of body temperatures during cold water immersion. J Appl Physiol 95:89–96

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Werner J (2010a) Modeling homeostatic responses to heat and cold. Compr Physiol 2011, Supplement 14: Handbook of Physiology, Environmental Physiology: 613–626. First published in print 1996. doi: 10.1002/cphy.cp040128. John Wiley & Sons, Inc

  • Werner J (2010b) System properties, feedback control and effector coordination of human temperature regulation. Eur J Appl Physiol 109:13–25

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Werner J, Buse M (1988) Temperature profiles with respect to inhomogeneity and geometry of the human body. J Appl Physiol 65:1110–1118

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wissler EH (1964) A mathematical model of the human thermal system. Bull Math Biophys 26:147–166

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wissler EH (1985) In: Shitzer A, Eberhart R (eds) Mathematical simulation of human thermal behavior using whole body models. Plenum Press, New York, pp. 325–373

    Google Scholar 

  • Xu X, Tikuisis P (2014) Thermoregulatory modeling for cold stress. Compr Physiol 4:1057–1081

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Xu X, Werner J (1997) A dynamic model of the human/clothing/environment-system. Appl Hum Sci 16:61–75

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Xu X, Tikuisis P, Giesbrecht G (1999) A mathematical model for human brain cooling during cold-water near-drowning. J Appl Physiol 86:265–272

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Xu X, Gonzalez JA, Santee WR, Blanchard LA, Hoyt RW (2015) Heat strain imposed by personal protective ensembles: quantitative analysis using a thermoregulation model. Int J Biometeorol

  • Zhang H, Huizenga C, Arens E, Yu T (2001) Considering individual physiological differences in a human thermal model. J Therm Biol 26:401–408

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zhang H, Arens E, Huizenga C, Han T (2010) Thermal sensation and comfort models for non-uniform and transient environments, part II: local comfort of individual body parts. Build Environ 45:389–398

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zhou X, Lian Z, Lan L (2013) An individualized human thermoregulation model for Chinese adults. Build Environ 70:257–265

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to thank Drs. Reed Hoyt, William Santee, Karl Friedl, Gary Zientara, and John Castellani for their discussion, comments, and proofreading and Mr. Stephen Mullen for his technical assistance. This article is approved for public release. The opinions or assertions contained herein are the private views of the author(s) and are not to be construed as official or reflecting the views of the Army or the Department of Defense. Any citations of commercial organizations and trade names in this report do not constitute an official Department of the Army endorsement of approval of the products or services of these organizations.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Xiaojiang Xu.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Xu, X., Rioux, T.P., MacLeod, T. et al. Measured body composition and geometrical data of four “virtual family” members for thermoregulatory modeling. Int J Biometeorol 61, 477–486 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00484-016-1227-7

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Revised:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00484-016-1227-7

Keywords

Navigation