Abstract
Regular eruptions from Sakurajima volcano, Japan, repeatedly cover local urban areas with volcanic ash. The frequency of exposure of local populations to the ash led to substantial concerns about possible respiratory health hazards, resulting in many epidemiological and toxicological studies being carried out in the 1980s. However, very few mineralogical data were available for determination of whether the ash was sufficiently fine to present a respiratory hazard. In this study, we review the existing studies and carry out mineralogical, geochemical and toxicological analyses to address whether the ash from Sakurajima has the potential to cause respiratory health problems. The results show that the amount of respirable (<4 μm) material produced by the volcano is highly variable in different eruptions (1.1–18.8 vol.%). The finest samples derive from historical, plinian eruptions but considerable amounts of respirable material were also produced from the most recent vulcanian eruptive phase (since 1955). The amount of cristobalite, a crystalline silica polymorph which has the potential to cause chronic respiratory diseases, is ~3–5 wt.% in the bulk ash. Scanning electron microscope and transmission electron microscope imaging showed no fibrous particles similar to asbestos particles. Surface reactivity tests showed that the ash did not produce significant amounts of highly reactive hydroxyl radicals (0.09–1.35 μmol m−2 at 30 min.) in comparison to other volcanic ash types. A basic toxicology assay to assess the ability of ash to rupture the membrane of red blood cells showed low propensity for haemolysis. The findings suggest that the potential health hazard of the ash is low, but exposure and respiratory conditions should still be monitored given the high frequency and durations of exposure.
References
AIOH (2009) AIOH Position paper on respirable crystalline silica and occupational health issues. Australian institute of occupational hygienists Inc. Exposure Standards Committee, Australia
Ali SF, Duhart HM, Newport GD, Lipe GW, Slikker WJ (1995) Manganese-induced reactive oxygen species: comparison between Mn2+ and Mn3+. Neurodegeneration 4:329–334
Baxter PJ, Bonadonna C, Dupree R, Hards VL, Kohn SC, Murphy MD, Nichols A, Nicholson RA, Norton G, Searl A, Sparks RSJ, Vickers BP (1999) Cristobalite in volcanic ash of the Soufriere Hills Volcano, Montserrat, British West Indies. Science 283:1142–1145
Buchanan D, Miller BG, Soutar CA (2003) Quantitative relationships between exposure to respirable quartz and risk of silicosis. Occup Environ Med 60:159–164
Clouter A, Brown D, Hohr D, Borm P, Donaldson K (2001) Inflammatory effects of respirable quartz collected in workplaces versus standard DQ12 quartz: particle surface correlates. Toxicol Sci 63(1):90–98
Cowie HA, Baxter PJ, Hincks T, Searl A, Sparks RSJ, Tran CL, Aspinall W, Woo G (2003) Risk assessment for silicosis and exposure to volcanic ash on Montserrat. In: Report to the UK Department for International Development, London, p 49
Deguchi K (1990) Development of a ventilation system against volcanic ash fall in Kagoshima. Energy Build 16:663–671
Donaldson J, McGregor D, LaBella F (1982) Manganese neurotoxicity: a model for free radical mediated neurodegeneration. Can J Physiol Pharmacol 60:1398–1405
Durand M, Gordon K, Johnston D, Lorden R, Poirot T, Scott J, Shephard B (2001) Impacts of, and responses to ashfall in Kagoshima from Sakurajima Volcano—lessons for New Zealand. Institute of Geological and Nuclear Sciences, New Zealand. Report volume 2001/30
Elias Z, Poirot O, Daniere MC, Terzetti F, Marande AM, Dzwigaj S, Pezerat H, Fenoglio I, Fubini B (2000) Comparative study of cytotoxicity and morphological transformation of Syrian hamster embryo cells induced by silica with different surface properties. Toxicol in Vitro 14:409–422
Eto T (2001) Estimation of the amount and dispersal of volcanic ash-fall deposits ejected by vulcanian type eruption. Rep Fac Sci, Kagoshima Univ 34:35–46
Fenoglio I, Fubini B, Tiozzo R, Di Renzo F (2000) Effect of micromorphology and surface reactivity of several unusual forms of crystalline silica on the toxicity to a monocyte–macrophage tumor cell line. Inhal Toxicol 12:81–89
Fong KL, McCay PB, Poyer JL, Misra HP, Keele BB (1976) Evidence for superoxide-dependent reduction of Fe3+ and its role in enzyme-generated hydroxyl radical formation. Chem Biol Interact 15(1):77–89
Fubini B (1998) Surface chemistry and quartz hazard. Ann Occup Hyg 42(8):521–530
Fubini B, Mollo L, Giamello E (1995) Free radical generation at the solid/liquid interface in iron containing minerals. Free Radic Res 23(6):593–614
Fukuyama H, Ono K (1981) Geological Map of Sakurajima Volcano. 1:25,000. Geological Survey of Japan, Tokyo
Halliwell B, Gutteridge JMC (1984) Oxygen toxicity, oxygen radicals, transition metals and disease. Biochem J 219:1–14
Hincks TK, Aspinall WP, Baxter PJ, Searl A, Sparks RSJ, Woo G (2006) Long term exposure to respirable volcanic ash on Montserrat: a time series simulation. Bull Volcanol 68:266–284
Horwell CJ (2007) Grain size analysis of volcanic ash for the rapid assessment of respiratory health hazard. J Environ Monit 9(10):1107–1115
Horwell CJ, Baxter PJ (2006) The respiratory health hazards of volcanic ash: a review for volcanic risk mitigation. Bull Volcanol 69(1):1–24
Horwell CJ, Fenoglio I, Ragnarsdottir KV, Sparks RSJ, Fubini B (2003a) Surface reactivity of volcanic ash from the eruption of Soufrière Hills volcano, Montserrat, with implications for health hazards. Environ Res 93(2):202–215
Horwell CJ, Sparks RSJ, Brewer TS, Llewellin EW, Williamson BJ (2003b) The characterisation of respirable volcanic ash from the Soufriere Hills Volcano, Montserrat, with implications for health hazard. Bull Volcanol 65:346–362
Horwell CJ, Fenoglio I, Fubini B (2007) Iron-induced hydroxyl radical generation from basaltic volcanic ash. Earth Planet Sci Lett 261(3–4):662–669
Horwell CJ, Le Blond JS, Michnowicz SAK, Cressey G (2010a) Cristobalite in a rhyolitic lava dome: evolution of ash hazard. Bull Volcanol 72:249–253
Horwell CJ, Stannett GW, Andronico D, Bertagnini A, Fenoglio I, Fubini B, Le Blond JS, Williamson BJ (2010b) A physico-chemical assessment of the health hazard of Mt. Vesuvius volcanic ash. J Volcanol Geotherm Res 191:222–232
Hussain S, Ali SF (1999) Manganese scavenges superoxide and hydroxyl radicals: an in vitro study in rats. Neurosci Lett 261:21–24
International Agency for Research on Cancer (1997) Silica, some silicates, coal dust and para-aramid fibrils. International Agency for Research on Cancer, Lyon, p 506
Ishihara K (1985) Dynamic analysis of volcanic explosion. J Geodyn 3:327–349
Ishihara K (1990) Pressure sources and induced ground deformation associated with explosive eruptions at an andesitic volcano: Sakurajima volcano, Japan. In: Ryan M (ed) Magma transport and storage. Wiley, Chichester, pp 335–356
Ishihara K (1999) Activity at Sakurajima volcano. Reports on Volcanic Activities and Volcanological Studies in Japan for the Period from 1995 to 1998. http://www.eri.u-tokyo.ac.jp/VRC/vrc/nr98/. Accessed 5 May 2011
Jomova K, Valko M (2011) Advances in metal-induced oxidative stress and human disease. Toxicology 283:65–87
Kariya M (1992) Is there any effect of volcanic eruptions of Mount Sakurajima on human lungs? Histopathological investigation and measurement of intrapulmonary particulate deposits amounts. Tohoku J Exp Med 166:331–343
Kariya M, Goto M, Hasui K, Yamamoto N, Tashiro Y, Sato E (1992) Is there any effect of volcanic eruptions of Mount Sakurajima on canine lungs exposed naturally? Morphometric analysis of intrapulmonary particulate deposit amount and histopathological investigations. Tohoku J Exp Med 167(3):197–205
Kawano M, Tomita K (2001a) Microbial biomineralization in weathered volcanic ash deposit and formation of biogenic minerals by experimental incubation. Am Mineral 86:400–410
Kawano M, Tomita K (2001b) TEM-EDX study of weathered layers on the surface of volcanic glass, bytownite, and hypersthene in volcanic ash from Sakurajima volcano, Japan. Am Mineral 86:284–292
Kinoshita K (1996) Observation of flow and dispersion of volcanic clouds from Mt. Sakurajima. Atmos Environ 30(16):2831–2837
Kinoshita K, Koyamada M, Kanagaki C (2000) High concentration events of SO2 and SPM around Sakurajima and atmospheric dispersion of volcanic clouds. 7th International Conference on Atmospheric Sciences and Application to Air Quality. Taipei
Kobayashi T, Iguchi M, Kawanabe Y (2007) C2: Sakurajima and Kaimondake Volcanoes, southern Kyushu. Cities on Volcanoes 5 conference, Field Excursion Guidebook
Koizumi A, Yano E, Higashi H, Nishii S (1988) Health effects of volcanic eruptions. Kagoshima International Conference on Volcanoes. Kagoshima, pp 705–708
Le Blond JS, Cressey G, Horwell CJ, Williamson BJ (2009) A rapid method for quantifying single mineral phases in heterogeneous natural dust using X-ray diffraction. Powder Diffract 24:17–23
Le Blond JS, Horwell CJ, Baxter PJ, Michnowicz SAK, Tomatis M, Fubini B, Delmelle P, Dunster C, Patia H (2010) Mineralogical analyses and in vitro screening tests for the rapid evaluation of the health hazard of volcanic ash at Rabaul volcano, Papua New Guinea. Bull Volcanol 72:1077–1092
Lee SH, Richards RJ (2004) Montserrat volcanic ash induces lymph node granuloma and delayed lung inflammation. Toxicology 195:155–165
NIOSH (2002) Hazard Review. Health effects of exposure to respirable crystalline silica. Department of Health and Human Services. National Institute of Occupational Health and Safety, Cincinnati
Oba N, Tomita K, Yamamoto M, Ohsako N, Inoue K (1980) Nature and origin of black ash, red ash and white ash from Sakurajima volcano, Kyushu, Japan. Bull Kagoshima Univ (Earth Sci Biol) 13:11–27
Oba N, Tomita K, Yamamoto M, Inoue K, Nakamura T, Ishii T, Kiyosake S (1984) Mechanism of the formation of volcanic ashes from Sakurajima volcano, Japan, and its influences to the environments. Bull Kagoshima Univ (Earth Sci Biol) 17:1–22
Okubo A, Kanda W, Tanaka Y, Ishihara K, Miki D, Utsugi M, Takayama T, Fukushima M (2009) Apparent magnetization intensity map on Sakurajima Volcano, Kyushu, Japan, inferred from low-altitude, high-density helicopter-borne aeromagnetic surveys. Tectonophysics 478(1–2):34–42
Park S, Imlay JA (2003) High levels of intracellular cysteine promote oxidative DNA damage by driving the Fenton reaction. J Bacteriol 185(6):1942–1950
Park R, Rice F, Stayner L, Smith R, Gilbert S, Checkoway H (2002) Exposure to crystalline silica, silicosis, and lung disease other than cancer in diatomaceous earth industry workers: quantitative risk assessment. Occup Environ Med 59(1):36–43
Reich M, Zúñiga A, Amigo A, Vargas G, Morata D, Palacios C, Parada MA, Garreaud RD (2009) Formation of cristobalite nanofibers during explosive volcanic eruptions. Geology 37(5):435–438
Samukawa T, Arasidani K, Hori H, Hirano H, Arima T (2003) C-jun mRNA expression and profiling mRNA amplification in rat alveolar macrophages exposed to volcanic ash and sulphur dioxide. Ind Health 41:313–319
Shi XL, Dalal NS (1990) The glutathionyl radical formation in the reaction between manganese and glutathione and its neurotoxic implications. Med Hypotheses 33:83–87
Shirakawa M, Fukushima R, Kyushima K (1984) Experimental studies on the effects of Mt. Sakurajima volcanic ashes on the respiratory organs. Japan J Publ Health 26:130–146
Shiraki K, Tomita K (1993) Weathering products of tephra from Sakurajima volcano. Bull Kagoshima Univ (Earth Sci Biol) 26:35–52
Smithsonian Institution GVP (2009) Sakurajima Weekly Reports. In: http://www.volcano.si.edu/world/volcano.cfm?vnum=0802-08=&volpage=weekly
Stohs SJ, Bagchi D (1995) Oxidative mechanisms in the toxicity of metal ions. Free Radic Biol Med 18:321–336
Toyama T, Nakaza M, Wakisaka I, Adachi S (1980) Flyash-like particles in the eruption cloud from Sakurajima Volcano. J Japan Soc Air Pollut 15(4):173–175
Uda H, Akiba S, Hatano H, Shinkura R (1999) Asthma-like disease in the children living in the neighbourhood of Mt. Sakurajima. J Epidemiol 9(1):27–31
Uto K, Miki D, Nguyen H, Sudo M, Fukushima D, Ishihara K (2005) Temporal evolution of magma composition in Sakurajima volcano, southwest Japan. Disaster Prev Res Inst, Ann Kyoto Univ 48 B:341–347
Wakisaka I, Yanagihashi T (1986) Week-to-week variations in mortality in the areas exposed to volcanic air pollution. J Jpn Soc Air Pollut 21(4):322–329
Wakisaka I, Takano A, Watanabe N (1978) Health effects of volcanic ashes of Mt. Sakurajima. Jpn J Publ Health 25(9):455–461
Wakisaka I, Yanagihashi T, Tomari T, Ando T (1983a) Effect of volcanic activities of Mt. Sakurajima on mortality due to respiratory diseases. Jpn J Publ Health 30(3):109–116
Wakisaka I, Yanagihashi T, Tomari T, Ando T (1983b) Health effects of volcanic activities of Mt. Sakurajima on school children. Jpn J Publ Health 30(3):101–108
Wakisaka I, Yanagihashi T, Tomari T, Ando T, Sakamoto M (1984) Effects of the volcanic activities of Mt. Sakurajima on mortality figures. Jpn J Publ Health 31(10):548–556
Wakisaka I, Yanagihashi T, Ono M, Hirano S (1985) Health effects of the volcanic activities of Mt. Sakurajima in the mortality statistics. J Jpn Soc Air Pollut 20(2):120–127
Wakisaka I, Yanagihashi T, Sato M, Tomari T (1989) Health effects of volcanic air pollution—an analysis of the national health insurance. Nippon Eiseigaku Zasshi 44(5):977–986
Warheit DB, Webb TR, Colvin VL, Reed KL, Sayes CR (2007) Pulmonary bioassay studies with nanoscale and fine-quartz particles in rats: toxicity is not dependent upon particle size but on surface characteristics. Toxicol Sci 95:270–280
Williamson BJ, Di Muro A, Horwell CJ, Spieler O, Llewellin EW (2010) Injection of vesicular magma into an andesitic dome at the effusive–explosive transition. Earth Planet Sci Lett 295:83–90
Wilson MR, Stone V, Cullen RT, Searl A, Maynard RL, Donaldson K (2000) In vitro toxicology of respirable Montserrat volcanic ash. Occup Environ Med 57:727–733
Yamanoi Y, Takeuchi S, Okumura S, Nakashima S, Yokoyama T (2008) Colour measurements of volcanic ash deposits from three different styles of summit activity at Sakurajima volcano, Japan: conduit processes recorded in color of volcanic ash. J Volcanol Geotherm Res 178:81–93
Yanagi T, Ichimaru Y, Hirahara S (1991) Petrochemical evidence for coupled magma chambers beneath the Sakurajima volcano, Kyushu, Japan. Geochem J 25:17–30
Yano E (1986) The biological effects of volcanic ash of Mount Sakurajima—environmental, experimental and epidemiological study. In: Hartmann HF (ed) Clean Air Congress. International Union of Air Pollution Prevention Associations, Sydney, Australia, pp 95–102
Yano E, Takeuchi A, Nishii S, Koizumi A, Poole A, Brown RC, Johnson NF, Evans PH, Yukiyama Y (1985) In vitro biological effects of volcanic ash from Mount Sakurajima. J Toxicol Environ Health 16:127–135
Yano E, Yokoyama Y, Nishii S (1986) Chronic pulmonary effects of volcanic ash: an epidemiologic study. Arch Environ Health 41(2):94–99
Yano E, Higashi H, Nishii S, Koizumi A, Yokoyama Y (1987) Pulmonary function of loggers exposed to the volcanic ash from Mt. Sakurajima. Jpn J Publ Health 34:251–254
Yano E, Yokoyama Y, Higashi H, Nishii S, Maeda K, Koizumi A (1990) Health effects of volcanic ash: a repeat study. Arch Environ Health 45(6):367–373
Yokoo A, Ishihara K (2007) Volcanic activity around Showa Crater of Sakurajima Volcano monitored with infrared and video cameras. Ann Disaster Prev Res Inst, Kyoto Univ 50C:149–156
Zager RA, Burkhart KM (1998) Differential effects of glutathione and cysteine on Fe2+, Fe3+, H2O2 and myoglobin-induced proximal tubular cell attack. Kidney Int 53:1661–1672
Acknowledgements
We thank the Disaster Prevention Research Institute (DPRI), Kyoto University, Japan and Hatfield College, Durham University, UK for providing essential funding to cover fieldwork in Japan. Thanks to Tom Bouquet for his help during the fieldtrip. Many thanks indeed to Dr. Miki (Sakurajima Volcano Research Center, Japan), Dr. Fukushima (Sakurajima Museum, Japan) and Mr. Matsusue (Kagoshima Local Meteorological Observatory of the Japan Meteorological Agency) who donated samples. Many thanks also to Prof. Iguchi and Prof. Ishihara (Sakurajima Volcano Research Center, Japan), Prof. Kinoshita (Kagoshima University, Japan), and Dr. Shimano (Fuji Tokoha University, Japan) for their hospitality, knowledge of the volcano and valuable feedback on the results. Thanks to Dr. Gordon Cressey (Natural History Museum, London, UK) and Dr. Jennifer Le Blond (University of Cambridge, UK) for help with XRD analyses and interpretation. Thanks also to Dr. Ivana Fenoglio (Turin University, Italy) and the rest of the Turin lab for training and advice with the EPR. Thanks to Scott Kimmins (Durham University) for help with the BET experiments, Dr. Budhika Mendis and Leon Bowen (Durham GJ Russell Microscopy Facility) for TEM analyses and for training on SEM, Nick Marsh (University of Leicester, UK) for help with XRF, Chris Rolfe and Steve Boreham (University of Cambridge) for training on the Malvern Mastersizer and Fiona Murphy (Centre for Inflammation Research, University of Edinburgh, UK) for haemolysis analyses. Thanks also to Dr. Peter Baxter (University of Cambridge), Prof. Eiji Yano (Teikyo University School of Medicine, Japan) and Dr. Ed Llewellin (Durham University) for constructive discussions on the manuscript and to Prof. Martin Reich (University of Chile) and Dr. Geoff Plumlee (USGS) for their helpful reviews.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Additional information
Editorial responsibility: JDL White
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Hillman, S.E., Horwell, C.J., Densmore, A.L. et al. Sakurajima volcano: a physico-chemical study of the health consequences of long-term exposure to volcanic ash. Bull Volcanol 74, 913–930 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00445-012-0575-3
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00445-012-0575-3