Abstract
Primary production can be controlled through bottom–up (e.g., resources) or top–down (e.g., predators) constraints. Two key bottom–up resources in small aquatic systems are light and nutrients, and forest canopy cover heavily influences these factors, whereas amphibian and invertebrate colonizers exert top–down pressure as grazers and predators. We designed our experiment to specifically manipulate two different top–down and bottom–up factors. We manipulated resources by altering light (low/high) and nutrient (low/high) availability; omnivores with the presence/absence of southern leopard frog tadpoles (Lithobates sphenocephalus); and predators with the presence/absence of spotted salamander larvae (Ambystoma maculatum) in a full-factorial experiment conducted over 14 weeks. We observed that both bottom–up and top–down effects were important in predicting lower trophic level biomass. We found a significant top–down effect of salamanders on Daphnia, but tadpoles had the strongest overall effect on the food web, influencing phytoplankton (+), periphyton (−), and chironomids (−). None of our models were good predictors of phytoplankton biomass, but both shading and nutrient availability relatively equally boosted periphyton biomass. We also found large temporal differences in food-web dynamics. Our results underscore the need for more information into how ecosystem functioning could be altered by land use, amphibian extirpation, and climate change.
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Acknowledgments
We thank A. Brock for setup and sampling help, A. Varwig for help setting up the experiment, T. Anderson and J. Burkhart for help collecting egg masses, and D. Obrecht and the Jones Lab for invaluable assistance with lab analyses. A. Bowling, the Semlitsch lab, the Holdo lab, and two anonymous reviewers provided helpful comments on previous versions of this manuscript. This research was supported by the DoD Strategic Environmental Research Development Program (RC2155). All animals were collected and maintained under the University of Missouri Animal Care and Use Committee Protocol No. 7403 and Missouri Department of Conservation Wildlife Collection Permit No. 15888.
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FER and RDS conceived and designed the experiment. FER and MBR performed the experiment. FER analyzed the data. FER wrote the manuscript and RDS provided editorial advice.
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Communicated by Joel Trexler.
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Rowland, F.E., Rawlings, M.B. & Semlitsch, R.D. Joint effects of resources and amphibians on pond ecosystems. Oecologia 183, 237–247 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00442-016-3748-5
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00442-016-3748-5