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Multiple origins of the phenol reaction negative phenotype in foxtail millet, Setaria italica (L.) P. Beauv., were caused by independent loss-of-function mutations of the polyphenol oxidase (Si7PPO) gene during domestication

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Abstract

Foxtail millet shows variation in positive phenol color reaction (Phr) and negative Phr in grains, but predominant accessions of this crop are negative reaction type, and the molecular genetic basis of the Phr reaction remains unresolved. In this article, we isolated polyphenol oxidase (PPO) gene responsible for Phr using genome sequence information and investigated molecular genetic basis of negative Phr and crop evolution of foxtail millet. First of all, we searched for PPO gene homologs in a foxtail millet genome database using a rice PPO gene as a query and successfully found three copies of the PPO gene. One of the PPO gene homologs on chromosome 7 showed the highest similarity with PPO genes expressed in hulls (grains) of other cereal species including rice, wheat, and barley and was designated as Si7PPO. Phr phenotypes and Si7PPO genotypes completely co-segregated in a segregating population. We also analyzed the genetic variation conferring negative Phr reaction. Of 480 accessions of the landraces investigated, 87 (18.1 %) showed positive Phr and 393 (81.9 %) showed negative Phr. In the 393 Phr negative accessions, three types of loss-of-function Si7PPO gene were predominant and independently found in various locations. One of them has an SNP in exon 1 resulting in a premature stop codon and was designated as stop codon type, another has an insertion of a transposon (Si7PPO-TE1) in intron 2 and was designated as TE1-insertion type, and the other has a 6-bp duplication in exon 3 resulting in the duplication of 2 amino acids and was designated as 6-bp duplication type. As a rare variant of the stop codon type, one accession additionally has an insertion of a transposon, Si7PPO-TE2, in intron 2 and was designated as “stop codon +TE2 insertion type”. The geographical distribution of accessions with positive Phr and those with three major types of negative Phr was also investigated. Accessions with positive Phr were found in subtropical and tropical regions at frequencies of ca. 25–67 % and those with negative Phr were broadly found in Europe and Asia. The stop codon type was found in 285 accessions and was broadly distributed in Europe and Asia, whereas the TE-1 insertion type was found in 99 accessions from Europe and Asia but was not found in India. The 6-bp duplication type was found in only 8 accessions from Nansei Islands (Okinawa Prefecture) of Japan. We also analyzed Phr in the wild ancestor and concluded that the negative Phr type was likely to have originated after domestication of foxtail millet. It was also implied that negative Phr of foxtail millet arose by multiple independent loss of function of PPO gene through dispersal because of some advantages under some environmental conditions and human selection as in rice and barley.

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Acknowledgments

This work was partially supported by NIAS Genebank Project, NIAS, Japan and by the Visiting Researcher’s Program of the Institute of Plant Science and Resources, Okayama University.

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.

Ethical standard

The experiments conducted in this research comply with the current laws of Japan.

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Author notes

  1. Makoto Kawase

    Present address: Faculty of Life and Environmental Sciences, Tsukuba University, Tennodai 1-1-1, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, 305-8577, Japan

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Faculty of Life and Environmental Sciences, Prefectural University of Hiroshima, Shobara, 727-0023, Japan

    Takahiko Inoue, Takeshi Ohta, Eriko Hitomi & Kenji Fukunaga

  2. Institute of Plant Science and Resources, Okayama University, Kurashiki, 710-0046, Japan

    Takahisa Yuo & Shin Taketa

  3. Faculty of Agriculture, Kagoshima University, Kagoshima, 890-8580, Japan

    Katsuyuki Ichitani

  4. Genebank, National Institute of Agrobiological Sciences (NIAS), Tsukuba, 305-8602, Japan

    Makoto Kawase

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  1. Takahiko Inoue
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  2. Takahisa Yuo
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Correspondence to Kenji Fukunaga.

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Communicated by S. Hohmann.

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Inoue, T., Yuo, T., Ohta, T. et al. Multiple origins of the phenol reaction negative phenotype in foxtail millet, Setaria italica (L.) P. Beauv., were caused by independent loss-of-function mutations of the polyphenol oxidase (Si7PPO) gene during domestication. Mol Genet Genomics 290, 1563–1574 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00438-015-1022-x

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  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00438-015-1022-x

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