Abstract
Brain-injured patients can experience epileptic seizures beyond 1 week from injury (unprovoked remote symptomatic epileptic seizures). In our longitudinal observational study, we analysed occurrence of unprovoked remote epileptic seizures and interictal epileptiform activity in 130 traumatic, vascular or anoxic inpatients with disorders of consciousness (DOC), with a clinical diagnosis of vegetative state (n = 97) or minimally conscious state (n = 33). We also investigated impact of epileptic seizures and epileptiform activity on clinical outcome (30 months post-onset). Epileptic seizures occurred in 35/130 patients (26.9 %), epileptiform activity in 61/130 (46.9 %) patients, without significant differences related to clinical diagnosis or aetiology. Among patients with epileptiform activity, only 26/61 (42.6 %) developed clinically evident seizures. Mortality at 30 months was not significantly influenced by the presence of seizures or epileptiform activity. The proportion of patients who recovered at long-term follow-up was higher in patients without than in patients with epileptic seizures, but was similar in patients with or without epileptiform activity. The presence of epileptic seizures but not of epileptiform activity, significantly affected the level of responsiveness at final outcome. In conclusion, seizures were detected in about one third of the whole sample, and in about a half of patients with epileptiform activity, regardless of clinical diagnosis or aetiology. Although epileptic seizures or epileptiform activity did not significantly affect mortality rate, we demonstrated that epileptic seizures could hamper recovery of consciousness. Epileptic seizures thus qualify as one of the factors largely undetermined at the moment which can influence prognosis in DOC patients.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
The Multy Society Task force on the Persistent Vegetative State (1994) Statement on medical aspects of the persistent vegetative state. N Engl J Med 330:1499–1508
Giacino JT, Ashwal S, Childs N, Cranford R, Jennett B, Katz DI, Kelly JP, Rosenberg JH, Whyte J, Zafonte RD, Zasler ND (2002) The minimally conscious state: definition and diagnostic criteria. Neurology 58:349–353
Whyte J, Nordenbo AM, Kalmar K, Merges B, Bagiella E, Chang H, Yablon S, Cho S, Hammond F, Khademi A, Giacino J (2013) Medical complications during inpatient rehabilitation among patients with traumatic disorders of consciousness. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 94:1877–1883. doi:10.1016/j.apmr.2012.12.027
Ganesh S, Guernon A, Chalcraft L, Harton B, Smith B, Louise-Bender Pape T (2013) Medical comorbidities in disorders of consciousness patients and their association with functional outcomes. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 94:1899–1907. doi:10.1016/j.apmr.2012.12.026
Hauser WA, Beghi E (2008) First seizure definitions and worldwide incidence and mortality. Epilepsia 49:S8–S12. doi:10.1111/j.1528-1167.2008.01443.x
Beghi E, Carpio A, Forsgren L, Hesdorffer DC, Malmgren K, Sander JW, Tomson T, Hauser WA (2010) Recommendation for a definition of acute symptomatic seizure. Epilepsia 51:671–675. doi:10.1111/j.1528-1167.2009.02285.x
Hesdorffer DC, Benn EK, Cascino GD, Hauser WA (2009) Is a first acute symptomatic seizure epilepsy? Mortality and risk for recurrent seizure. Epilepsia 50:1102–1108. doi:10.1111/j.1528-1167.2008.01945.x
Berg AT, Berkovic SF, Brodie MJ, Buchhalter J, Cross JH, van Emde Boas W, Engel J, French J, Glauser TA, Mathern GW, Moshé SL, Nordli D, Plouin P, Scheffer IE (2010) Revised terminology and concepts for organization of seizures and epilepsies: report of the ILAE Commission on Classification and Terminology, 2005–2009. Epilepsia 51:676–685. doi:10.1111/j.1528-1167.2010.02522.x
Librizzi L, Noè F, Vezzani A, de Curtis M, Ravizza T (2012) Seizure-induced brain-borne inflammation sustains seizure recurrence and blood-brain barrier damage. Ann Neurol 72:82–90. doi:10.1002/ana.23567
Bagnato S, Boccagni C, Galardi G (2013) Structural epilepsy occurrence in vegetative and minimally conscious states. Epilepsy Res 103:106–109. doi:10.1016/j.eplepsyres.2012.09.008
Noachtar S, Binnie C, Ebersole J, Mauguière F, Sakamoto A, Westmoreland B (1999) A glossary of terms most commonly used by clinical electroencephalographers and proposal for the report form for the EEG findings. The International Federation of Clinical Neurophysiology. Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol Suppl 52:21–41
Bagnato S, Boccagni C, Sant’Angelo A, Prestandrea C, Virgilio V, Galardi G (2016) EEG epileptiform abnormalities at admission to a rehabilitation department predict the risk of seizures in disorders of consciousness following a coma. Epilepsy Behav 56:83–87
Nakase-Richardson R, Whyte J, Giacino JT, Pavawalla S, Barnett SD, Yablon SA, Sherer M, Kalmar K, Hammond FM, Greenwald B, Horn LJ, Seel R, McCarthy M, Tran J, Walker WC (2012) Longitudinal outcome of patients with disordered consciousness in the NIDRR TBI Model Systems Programs. J Neurotrauma 29:59–65. doi:10.1089/neu.2011.1829
Estraneo A, Moretta P, Loreto V, Lanzillo B, Santoro L, Trojano L (2010) Late recovery after traumatic, anoxic, or hemorrhagic long-lasting vegetative state. Neurology 75:239–245. doi:10.1212/WNL.0b013e3181e8e8cc
Estraneo A, Moretta P, Loreto V, Lanzillo B, Cozzolino A, Saltalamacchia A, Lullo F, Santoro L, Trojano L (2013) Predictors of recovery of responsiveness in prolonged anoxic vegetative state. Neurology 80:464–470. doi:10.1212/WNL.0b013e31827f0f31
Estraneo A, Moretta P, Loreto V, Santoro L, Trojano L (2014) Clinical and neuropsychological long-term outcomes after late recovery of responsiveness: a case series. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 95:711–716. doi:10.1016/j.apmr.2013.11.004
Steppacher I, Kaps M, Kissler J (2004) Will time heal? A long-term follow-up of severe disorders of consciousness. Ann Clin Transl Neurol 1:401–408. doi:10.1002/acn3.63
Giacino JT, Kalmar K, Whyte J (2004) The JFK Coma Recovery Scale-Revised: measurement characteristics and diagnostic utility. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 85:2020–2029
Estraneo A, Moretta P, De Tanti A, Gatta G, Giacino JT, Trojano L, Italian Crs-R Multicentre Validation Group (2015) An Italian multicentre validation study of the coma recovery scale-revised. Eur J Phys Rehabil Med 51:627–634
Majerus S, Gill-Thwaites H, Andrews K, Laureys S (2005) Behavioural evaluation of consciousness in severe brain damage. Prog Brain Res 150:397–413
Estraneo A, Moretta P, Cardinale V, De Tanti A, Gatta G, Giacino JT, Trojano L (2015) A multicentre study of intentional behavioural responses measured using the Coma Recovery Scale-Revised in patients with minimally conscious state. Clin Rehabil 29:803–808. doi:10.1177/0269215514556002
Bodien YG, Carlowicz CA, Chatelle C, Giacino JT (2016) Sensitivity and specificity of the Coma Recovery Scale-Revised total score in detection of conscious awareness. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 97:490–492. doi:10.1016/j.apmr.2015.08.422
Thurman DJ, Beghi E, Begley CE, Berg AT, Buchhalter JR, Ding D, Hesdorffer DC, Hauser WA, Kazis L, Kobau R, Kroner B, Labiner D, Liow K, Logroscino G, Medina MT, Newton CR, Parko K, Paschal A, Preux PM, Sander JW, Selassie A, Theodore W, Tomson T, Wiebe S, ILAE Commission on Epidemiology (2011) Standards for epidemiologic studies and surveillance of epilepsy. Epilepsia 52(Suppl 7):2–26. doi:10.1111/j.1528-1167.2011.03121.x
Hirsch LJ (2011) Classification of EEG patterns in patients with impaired consciousness. Epilepsia 52:21–24. doi:10.1111/j.1528-1167.2011.03228.x
Hirsch LJ, LaRoche SM, Gaspard N, Gerard E, Svoronos A, Herman ST, Mani R, Arif H, Jette N, Minazad Y, Kerrigan JF, Vespa P, Hantus S, Claassen J, Young GB, So E, Kaplan PW, Nuwer MR, Fountain NB, Drislane FW (2013) American Clinical Neurophysiology Society’s Standardized Critical Care EEG Terminology: 2012 version. J Clin Neurophysiol 30:1–27
Salinsky M, Kanter R, Dasheiff RM (1987) Effectiveness of multiple EEGs in supporting the diagnosis of epilepsy: an operational curve. Epilepsia 28:331–334
Andraus ME, Andraus CF, Alves-Leon SV (2012) Periodic EEG patterns: importance of their recognition and clinical significance. Arq Neuropsiquiatr 70:145–151
Wijdicks EF, Hijdra A, Young GB, Bassetti CL, Wiebe S (2006) Quality Standards Subcommittee of the American Academy of Neurology. Practice parameter: prediction of outcome in comatose survivors after cardiopulmonary resuscitation (an evidence-based review): report of the Quality Standards Subcommittee of the American Academy of Neurology. Neurology 67:203–210
Claassen J, Mayer SA, Kowalski RG, Emerson RG, Hirsch LJ (2004) Detection of electrographic seizures with continuous EEG monitoring in critically ill patients. Neurology 62:1743–1748
Claassen J, Taccone FS, Horn P, Holtkamp M, Stocchetti N, Oddo M, Neurointensive Care Section of the European Society of Intensive Care Medicine (2013) Recommendations on the use of EEG monitoring in critically ill patients: consensus statement from the neurointensive care section of the ESICM. Intensive Care Med 39:1337–1351. doi:10.1007/s00134-013-2938-4
Striano S, Meo R, Bilo L, Ruosi P, Soricellis M, Estraneo A, Caporella A (1992) The use of EEG activating procedures in epileptology. Acta Neurol (Napoli) 14:275–289
Fitzpatrick W, Lowry N (2007) PLEDs: clinical correlates. Can J Neurol Sci 34:443–450
Estraneo A, Loreto V, Moretta P, Guarino I, Boemia V, Paone G, Trojano L (2016) Standard EEG in diagnostic process of prolonged disorders of consciousness. Clin Neurophysiol 127:2379–2385. doi:10.1016/j.clinph.2016.03.021
Askalan R, Gabarin N, Armstrong EA, Fang Liu Y, Couchman D, Yager JY (2015) Mechanisms of neurodegeneration after severe hypoxic-ischemic injury in the neonatal rat brain. Brain Res 1629:94–103. doi:10.1016/j.brainres.2015
Mckee AC, Daneshvar DH (2015) The neuropathology of traumatic brain injury. Handb Clin Neurol 127:45–66. doi:10.1016/B978-0-444-52892-6.00004-0
Lucke-Wold BP, Nguyen L, Turner RC, Logsdon AF, Chen YW, Smith KE, Huber JD, Matsumoto R, Rosen CL, Tucker ES, Richter E (2015) Traumatic brain injury and epilepsy: underlying mechanisms leading to seizure. Seizure 33:13–23. doi:10.1016/j.seizure.2015.10.002
Neligan A, Bell GS, Shorvon SD, Sander JW (2010) Temporal trends in the mortality of people with epilepsy: a review. Epilepsia 51:2241–2246. doi:10.1111/j.1528-1167.2010.02711.x
Keezer MR, Bell GS, Neligan A, Novy J, Sander JW (2016) Cause of death and predictors of mortality in a community-based cohort of people with epilepsy. Neurology 86:704–712. doi:10.1212/WNL.0000000000002390
Demertzi A, Schnakers C, Soddu A, Bruno MA, Gosseries O, Vanhaudenhuyse A, Laureys S (2011) Neural plasticity lessons from disorders of consciousness. Front Psychol 1:245. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2010.00245
Mula M, Trimble MR (2009) Antiepileptic drug-induced cognitive adverse effects: potential mechanisms and contributing factors. CNS Drugs 23:121–137. doi:10.2165/00023210-200923020-00003
Holtkamp M, Meierkord H (2011) Nonconvulsive status epilepticus: a diagnostic and therapeutic challenge in the intensive care setting. Ther Adv Neurol Disord 4:169–181. doi:10.1177/1756285611403826
Amantini A, Fossi S, Grippo A, Innocenti P, Amadori A, Bucciardini L, Cossu C, Nardini C, Scarpelli S, Roma V, Pinto F (2009) Continuous EEG-SEP monitoring in severe brain injury. Neurophysiol Clin 39(2):85–93. doi:10.1016/j.neucli.2009.01.006
Guérit JM, Amantini A, Amodio P, Andersen KV, Butler S, de Weerd A, Facco E, Fischer C, Hantson P, Jäntti V, Lamblin MD, Litscher G, Péréon Y (2009) Consensus on the use of neurophysiological tests in the intensive care unit (ICU): electroencephalogram (EEG), evoked potentials (EP), and electroneuromyography (ENMG). Neurophysiol Clin 39(2):71–83. doi:10.1016/j.neucli.2009.03.002
Acknowledgments
The authors are profoundly indebted to all the patients who participated in the study; the authors thank Orsola Masotta, from Salvatore Maugeri Foundation, Telese (Italy) for her support in collecting data.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Ethical standard
The study was approved by the local Ethics Committee, and performed according to the ethical standards laid down in the 1964 Helsinki Declaration and its later amendments.
Written informed consent was obtained from the legal guardian of patient.
Conflicts of interest
The present research has not been sponsored by any commercial organization. The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Pascarella, A., Trojano, L., Loreto, V. et al. Long-term outcome of patients with disorders of consciousness with and without epileptiform activity and seizures: a prospective single centre cohort study. J Neurol 263, 2048–2056 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00415-016-8232-y
Received:
Revised:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00415-016-8232-y