Abstract
Cleavage of the ring-like cohesin complex by separase triggers segregation of sister chromatids in anaphase. This simplistic model has recently been extended by exciting discoveries on three levels: regulation of anaphase by posttranslational modifications and the cohesin protector shugoshin; non-proteolytic roles of separase; and cohesin-independent linkage of sister chromatids.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Alexandru G, Zachariae W, Schleiffer A, Nasmyth K (1999) Sister chromatid separation and chromosome re-duplication are regulated by different mechanisms in response to spindle damage. EMBO J 18:2707–2721
Alexandru G, Uhlmann F, Mechtler K, Poupart MA, Nasmyth K (2001) Phosphorylation of the cohesin subunit Scc1 by Polo/Cdc5 kinase regulates sister chromatid separation in yeast. Cell 105:459–472
Azuma Y, Arnaoutov A, Dasso M (2003) SUMO-2/3 regulates topoisomerase II in mitosis. J Cell Biol 163:477–487
Azzam R, Chen SL, Shou W, Mah AS, Alexandru G, Nasmyth K, Annan RS, Carr SA, Deshaies RJ (2004) Phosphorylation by cyclin B-Cdk underlies release of mitotic exit activator Cdc14 from the nucleolus. Science 305:516–519
Bachant J, Alcasabas A, Blat Y, Kleckner N, Elledge SJ (2002) The SUMO-1 isopeptidase Smt4 is linked to centromeric cohesion through SUMO-1 modification of DNA topoisomerase II. Mol Cell 9:1169–1182
Bernard P, Maure JF, Javerzat JP (2001) Fission yeast Bub1 is essential in setting up the meiotic pattern of chromosome segregation. Nat Cell Biol 3:522–526
Bhalla N, Biggins S, Murray AW (2002) Mutation of YCS4, a budding yeast condensin subunit, affects mitotic and nonmitotic chromosome behavior. Mol Biol Cell 13:632–645
Buonomo SB, Clyne RK, Fuchs J, Loidl J, Uhlmann F, Nasmyth K (2000) Disjunction of homologous chromosomes in meiosis I depends on proteolytic cleavage of the meiotic cohesin Rec8 by separin. Cell 103:387–398
Buonomo SB, Rabitsch KP, Fuchs J, Gruber S, Sullivan M, Uhlmann F, Petronczki M, Toth A, Nasmyth K (2003) Division of the nucleolus and its release of CDC14 during anaphase of meiosis I depends on separase, SPO12, and SLK19. Dev Cell 4:727–739
Buvelot S, Tatsutani SY, Vermaak D, Biggins S (2003) The budding yeast Ipl1/Aurora protein kinase regulates mitotic spindle disassembly. J Cell Biol 160:329–339
Chang DC, Xu N, Luo KQ (2003) Degradation of cyclin B is required for the onset of anaphase in mammalian cells. J Biol Chem 278:37865–37873
Clarke AS, Tang TT, Ooi DL, Orr-Weaver TL (2005) POLO kinase regulates the Drosophila centromere cohesion protein MEI-S332. Dev Cell 8:53–64
Cleveland DW, Mao Y, Sullivan KF (2003) Centromeres and kinetochores: from epigenetics to mitotic checkpoint signaling. Cell 112:407–421
Cohen-Fix O, Peters JM, Kirschner MW, Koshland D (1996) Anaphase initiation in Saccharomyces cerevisiae is controlled by the APC-dependent degradation of the anaphase inhibitor Pds1p. Genes Dev 10:3081–3093
D’Amours D, Stegmeier F, Amon A (2004) Cdc14 and condensin control the dissolution of cohesin-independent chromosome linkages at repeated DNA. Cell 117:455–469
Dynek JN, Smith S (2004) Resolution of sister telomere association is required for progression through mitosis. Science 304:97–100
Freeman L, Aragon-Alcaide L, Strunnikov A (2000) The condensin complex governs chromosome condensation and mitotic transmission of rDNA. J Cell Biol 149:811–824
Funabiki H, Yamano H, Kumada K, Nagao K, Hunt T, Yanagida M (1996) Cut2 proteolysis required for sister-chromatid separation in fission yeast. Nature 381:438–441
Gimenez-Abian JF, Sumara I, Hirota T, Hauf S, Gerlich D, de la Torre C, Ellenberg J, Peters JM (2004) Regulation of sister chromatid cohesion between chromosome arms. Curr Biol 14:1187–1193
Gruber S, Haering CH, Nasmyth K (2003) Chromosomal cohesin forms a ring. Cell 112:765–777
Gruneberg U, Glotzer M, Gartner A, Nigg EA (2002) The CeCDC-14 phosphatase is required for cytokinesis in the Caenorhabditis elegans embryo. J Cell Biol 158:901–914
Guacci V, Koshland D, Strunnikov A (1997) A direct link between sister chromatid cohesion and chromosome condensation revealed through the analysis of MCD1 in S. cerevisiae. Cell 91:47–57
Hagting A, Den Elzen N, Vodermaier HC, Waizenegger IC, Peters JM, Pines J (2002) Human securin proteolysis is controlled by the spindle checkpoint and reveals when the APC/C switches from activation by Cdc20 to Cdh1. J Cell Biol 157:1125–1137
Herbert M, Levasseur M, Homer H, Yallop K, Murdoch A, McDougall A (2003) Homologue disjunction in mouse oocytes requires proteolysis of securin and cyclin B1. Nat Cell Biol 5:1023–1025
Hornig NC, Uhlmann F (2004) Preferential cleavage of chromatin-bound cohesin after targeted phosphorylation by Polo-like kinase. EMBO J 23:3144–3153
Irniger S, Piatti S, Michaelis C, Nasmyth K (1995) Genes involved in sister chromatid separation are needed for B-type cyclin proteolysis in budding yeast. Cell 81:269–278
Jallepalli PV, Waizenegger IC, Bunz F, Langer S, Speicher MR, Peters J, Kinzler KW, Vogelstein B, Lengauer C (2001) Securin is required for chromosomal stability in human cells. Cell 105:445–457
Katis VL, Galova M, Rabitsch KP, Gregan J, Nasmyth K (2004a) Maintenance of cohesin at centromeres after meiosis I in budding yeast requires a kinetochore-associated protein related to MEI-S332. Curr Biol 14:560–572
Katis VL, Matos J, Mori S, Shirahige K, Zachariae W, Nasmyth K (2004b) Spo13 facilitates monopolin recruitment to kinetochores and regulates maintenance of centromeric cohesion during yeast meiosis. Curr Biol 14:2183–2196
Kerrebrock AW, Moore DP, Wu JS, Orr-Weaver TL (1995) Mei-S332, a Drosophila protein required for sister-chromatid cohesion, can localize to meiotic centromere regions. Cell 83:247–256
King RW, Peters JM, Tugendreich S, Rolfe M, Hieter P, Kirschner MW (1995) A 20S complex containing CDC27 and CDC16 catalyzes the mitosis-specific conjugation of ubiquitin to cyclin B. Cell 81:279–288
Kitajima TS, Miyazaki Y, Yamamoto M, Watanabe Y (2003a) Rec8 cleavage by separase is required for meiotic nuclear divisions in fission yeast. EMBO J 22:5643–5653
Kitajima TS, Yokobayashi S, Yamamoto M, Watanabe Y (2003b) Distinct cohesin complexes organize meiotic chromosome domains. Science 300:1152–1155
Kitajima TS, Kawashima SA, Watanabe Y (2004) The conserved kinetochore protein shugoshin protects centromeric cohesion during meiosis. Nature 427:510–517
Klein F, Mahr P, Galova M, Buonomo SB, Michaelis C, Nairz K, Nasmyth K (1999) A central role for cohesins in sister chromatid cohesion, formation of axial elements, and recombination during yeast meiosis. Cell 98:91–103
Lavoie BD, Hogan E, Koshland D (2004) In vivo requirements for rDNA chromosome condensation reveal two cell-cycle-regulated pathways for mitotic chromosome folding. Genes Dev 18:76–87
Lee BH, Amon A, Prinz S (2002) Spo13 regulates cohesin cleavage. Genes Dev 16:1672–1681
Lee BH, Kiburz BM, Amon A (2004a) Spo13 maintains centromeric cohesion and kinetochore coorientation during meiosis I. Curr Biol 14:2168–2182
Lee JY, Dej KJ, Lopez JM, Orr-Weaver TL (2004b) Control of centromere localization of the MEI-S332 cohesion protection protein. Curr Biol 14:1277–1283
Losada A, Hirano M, Hirano T (1998) Identification of Xenopus SMC protein complexes required for sister chromatid cohesion. Genes Dev 12:1986–1997
Losada A, Hirano M, Hirano T (2002) Cohesin release is required for sister chromatid resolution, but not for condensin-mediated compaction, at the onset of mitosis. Genes Dev 16:3004–3016
Marston AL, Lee BH, Amon A (2003) The Cdc14 phosphatase and the FEAR network control meiotic spindle disassembly and chromosome segregation. Dev Cell 4:711–726
Marston AL, Tham WH, Shah H, Amon A (2004) A genome-wide screen identifies genes required for centromeric cohesion. Science 303:1367–1370
McGrew JT, Goetsch L, Byers B, Baum P (1992) Requirement for ESP1 in the nuclear division of Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Mol Biol Cell 3:1443–1454
Mei J, Huang X, Zhang P (2001) Securin is not required for cellular viability, but is required for normal growth of mouse embryonic fibroblasts. Curr Biol 11:1197–1201
Michaelis C, Ciosk R, Nasmyth K (1997) Cohesins: chromosomal proteins that prevent premature separation of sister chromatids. Cell 91:35–45
Murray AW, Kirschner MW (1989) Cyclin synthesis drives the early embryonic cell cycle. Nature 339:275–280
Murray AW, Solomon MJ, Kirschner MW (1989) The role of cyclin synthesis and degradation in the control of maturation promoting factor activity. Nature 339:280–286
Noton E, Diffley JF (2000) CDK inactivation is the only essential function of the APC/C and the mitotic exit network proteins for origin resetting during mitosis. Mol Cell 5:85–95
Paweletz N (2001) Walther Flemming: pioneer of mitosis research. Nat Rev Mol Cell Biol 2:72–75
Pereira G, Schiebel E (2003) Separase regulates INCENP–aurora B anaphase spindle function through Cdc14. Science 302:2120–2124
Petronczki M, Siomos MF, Nasmyth K (2003) Un menage a quatre: the molecular biology of chromosome segregation in meiosis. Cell 112:423–440
Rabitsch KP, Gregan J, Schleiffer A, Javerzat JP, Eisenhaber F, Nasmyth K (2004) Two fission yeast homologs of Drosophila Mei-S332 are required for chromosome segregation during meiosis I and II. Curr Biol 14:287–301
Rappleye CA, Tagawa A, Lyczak R, Bowerman B, Aroian RV (2002) The anaphase-promoting complex and separin are required for embryonic anterior–posterior axis formation. Dev Cell 2:195–206
Ross KE, Cohen-Fix O (2004) A role for the FEAR pathway in nuclear positioning during anaphase. Dev Cell 6:729–735
Salic A, Waters JC, Mitchison TJ (2004) Vertebrate shugoshin links sister centromere cohesion and kinetochore microtubule stability in mitosis. Cell 118:567–578
Shonn MA, McCarroll R, Murray AW (2000) Requirement of the spindle checkpoint for proper chromosome segregation in budding yeast meiosis. Science 289:300–303
Shonn MA, McCarroll R, Murray AW (2002) Spo13 protects meiotic cohesin at centromeres in meiosis I. Genes Dev 16:1659–1671
Siomos MF, Badrinath A, Pasierbek P, Livingstone D, White J, Glotzer M, Nasmyth K (2001) Separase is required for chromosome segregation during meiosis I in Caenorhabditis elegans. Curr Biol 11:1825–1835
Stead K, Aguilar C, Hartman T, Drexel M, Meluh P, Guacci V (2003) Pds5p regulates the maintenance of sister chromatid cohesion and is sumoylated to promote the dissolution of cohesion. J Cell Biol 163:729–741
Stegmeier F, Amon A (2004) Closing mitosis: the functions of the Cdc14 phosphatase and its regulation. Annu Rev Genet 38:203–232
Stegmeier F, Visintin R, Amon A (2002) Separase, polo kinase, the kinetochore protein Slk19, and Spo12 function in a network that controls Cdc14 localization during early anaphase. Cell 108:207–220
Stemmann O, Zou H, Gerber SA, Gygi SP, Kirschner MW (2001) Dual inhibition of sister chromatid separation at metaphase. Cell 107:715–726
Straight AF, Marshall WF, Sedat JW, Murray AW (1997) Mitosis in living budding yeast: anaphase A but no metaphase plate. Science 277:574–578
Strunnikov AV, Aravind L, Koonin EV (2001) Saccharomyces cerevisiae SMT4 encodes an evolutionarily conserved protease with a role in chromosome condensation regulation. Genetics 158:95–107
Sudakin V, Ganoth D, Dahan A, Heller H, Hershko J, Luca FC, Ruderman JV, Hershko A (1995) The cyclosome, a large complex containing cyclin-selective ubiquitin ligase activity, targets cyclins for destruction at the end of mitosis. Mol Biol Cell 6:185–197
Sullivan M, Uhlmann F (2003) A non-proteolytic function of separase links the onset of anaphase to mitotic exit. Nat Cell Biol 5:249–254
Sullivan M, Lehane C, Uhlmann F (2001) Orchestrating anaphase and mitotic exit: separase cleavage and localization of Slk19. Nat Cell Biol 3:771–777
Sullivan M, Higuchi T, Katis VL, Uhlmann F (2004) Cdc14 phosphatase induces rDNA condensation and resolves cohesin-independent cohesion during budding yeast anaphase. Cell 117:471–482
Sumara I, Vorlaufer E, Stukenberg PT, Kelm O, Redemann N, Nigg EA, Peters JM (2002) The dissociation of cohesin from chromosomes in prophase is regulated by Polo-like kinase. Mol Cell 9:515–525
Surana U, Amon A, Dowzer C, McGrew J, Byers B, Nasmyth K (1993) Destruction of the CDC28/CLB mitotic kinase is not required for the metaphase to anaphase transition in budding yeast. EMBO J 12:1969–1978
Tang Z, Sun Y, Harley SE, Zou H, Yu H (2004) Human Bub1 protects centromeric sister-chromatid cohesion through Shugoshin during mitosis. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 101:18012–18017
Terret ME, Wassmann K, Waizenegger I, Maro B, Peters JM, Verlhac MH (2003) The meiosis I-to-meiosis II transition in mouse oocytes requires separase activity. Curr Biol 13:1797–1802
Torres-Rosell J, Machin F, Jarmuz A, Aragon L (2004) Nucleolar segregation lags behind the rest of the genome and requires Cdc14p activation by the FEAR network. Cell Cycle 3:496–502
Toth A, Rabitsch KP, Galova M, Schleiffer A, Buonomo SB, Nasmyth K (2000) Functional genomics identifies monopolin: a kinetochore protein required for segregation of homologs during meiosis I. Cell 103:1155–1168
Uhlmann F, Lottspeich F, Nasmyth K (1999) Sister-chromatid separation at anaphase onset is promoted by cleavage of the cohesin subunit Scc1. Nature 400:37–42
Uhlmann F, Wernic D, Poupart MA, Koonin EV, Nasmyth K (2000) Cleavage of cohesin by the CD clan protease separin triggers anaphase in yeast. Cell 103:375–386
Vig BK (1981) Sequence of centromere separation: analysis of mitotic chromosomes in man. Hum Genet 57:247–252
Visintin R, Prinz S, Amon A (1997) CDC20 and CDH1: a family of substrate-specific activators of APC-dependent proteolysis. Science 278:460–463
Visintin R, Stegmeier F, Amon A (2003) The role of the polo kinase Cdc5 in controlling Cdc14 localization. Mol Biol Cell 14:4486–4498
Waizenegger IC, Hauf S, Meinke A, Peters JM (2000) Two distinct pathways remove mammalian cohesin from chromosome arms in prophase and from centromeres in anaphase. Cell 103:399–410
Walker MY, Hawley RS (2000) Hanging on to your homolog: the roles of pairing, synapsis and recombination in the maintenance of homolog adhesion. Chromosoma 109:3–9
Wang BD, Yong-Gonzalez V, Strunnikov AV (2004) Cdc14p/FEAR pathway controls segregation of nucleolus in S. cerevisiae by facilitating condensin targeting to rDNA chromatin in anaphase. Cell Cycle 3:960–967
Wasch R, Cross FR (2002) APC-dependent proteolysis of the mitotic cyclin Clb2 is essential for mitotic exit. Nature 418:556–562
Watanabe Y, Nurse P (1999) Cohesin Rec8 is required for reductional chromosome segregation at meiosis. Nature 400:461–464
Zeng X, Kahana JA, Silver PA, Morphew MK, McIntosh JR, Fitch IT, Carbon J, Saunders WS (1999) Slk19p is a centromere protein that functions to stabilize mitotic spindles. J Cell Biol 146:415–425
Acknowledgements
We apologize to our colleagues whose work could not be cited due to space constraints. O.S. is supported by grants from the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG; Emmy Noether Program) and from the Human Frontier Science Program.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Additional information
Communicated by F. Uhlmann
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Stemmann, O., Boos, D. & Gorr, I.H. Rephrasing anaphase: separase FEARs shugoshin. Chromosoma 113, 409–417 (2005). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00412-005-0331-y
Received:
Revised:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00412-005-0331-y