Abstract
In this review, we discuss current structural and functional imaging data on ADHD in a neurological and neuroanatomical framework. At present, the literature on adult ADHD is somewhat sparse, and so results from imaging have to therefore be considered mainly from the childhood or adolescence perspective. Most work has considered the impairment of executive functions (motor execution, inhibition, working memory), and as such a number of attention networks and their anatomical correlates are discussed in this review (e. g. the cerebello-(thalamo-)-striato-cortical network seems to play a pivotal role in ADHD pathology from childhood to adulthood).
The core findings in ADHD imaging are alterations in the architecture and function of prefrontal cortex and cerebellum. The dorsal part of anterior cingulated cortex (dACC) is an important region for decision making, and executive control is impaired in adult ADHD. Finally, dysfunction of basal ganglia is a consistent finding in childhood and adulthood ADHD, reflecting dysregulation of fronto-striatal circuitry. The cerebellum, and its role in affect and cognition, is also persistently implicated in the pathology of ADHD.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Adler CM, Delbello MP, Mills NP, Schmithorst V, Holland S, Strakowski SM (2005) Comorbid ADHD is associated with altered patterns of neuronal activation in adolescents with bipolar disorder performing a simple attention task. Bipolar Disord 7(6):577–588
Allen G, Courchesne E (2001) Attention function and dysfunction in autism. Front Biosci 6:D105–D119
Allen G, Muller RA, Courchesne E (2004) Cerebellar function in autism: functional magnetic resonance image activation during a simple motor task. Biol Psychiatry 56(4):269–278
Anderson CM, Polcari A, Lowen SB, Renshaw PF, Teicher MH (2002) Effects of methylphenidate on functional magnetic resonance relaxometry of the cerebellar vermis in boys with ADHD. Am J Psychiat 159(8):1322–1328
Aron AR, Fletcher PC, Bullmore ET, Sahakian BJ, Robbins TW (2003) Stop-signal inhibition disrupted by damage to the right inferior frontal gyrus in humans. Nat Neurosci 6:115–116
Ashtari M, Kumra S, Bhaskar SL, Clarke T, Thaden E, Cervellione KL, Rhinewine J, Kane JM, Adesman A, Milanaik R, Maytal J, Diamond A, Szeszko P, Ardekani BA (2005) Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a preliminary diffusion tensor imaging study. Biol Psychiatry 57(5):448–455
Aylward EH, Reiss AL, Reader MJ, Singer HS, Brown JE, Denckla MB (1996) Basal ganglia volumes in children with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. J Child Neurol 11:112–115
Banaschewski T, Hollis C, Oosterlaan J, Roeyers H, Rubia K, Willcutt E, Taylor E (2005) Towards an understanding of unique and shared pathways in the psychopathophysiology of ADHD. Dev Sci 8(2):132–140
Baron-Cohen S, Ring HA, Wheelwright S, Bullmore ET, Brammer MJ, Simmons A, Williams SC (1999) Social intelligence in the normal and autistic brain: an fMRI study. Eur J Neurosci 11(6):1891–1898
Bauer LO, Hesselbrock VM (2003) Brain maturation and subtypes of conduct disorder: interactive effects on p300 amplitude and topography in male adolescents. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 42(1):106–115
Baumgardner TL, Singer HS, Denckla MB, Rubin MA, Abrams MT, Colli MJ, Reiss AL (1996) Corpus callosum morphology in children with Tourette syndrome and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Neurology 47:1–6
Berquin PC, Giedd JN, Jacobsen LK, Hamburger SD, Krain AL, Rapoport JL, Castellanos FX (1998) Cerebellum in attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder:A morphometric MRI study. Neurology 50:1087–1093
Biederman J, Faraone SV, Mick E, Spencer T, Wilens T, Kiely K et al. (1995) High risk for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder among children of parents with childhood onset of the disorder: A pilot study. Am J Psychiat 152:431–435
Biederman J, Faraone SV, Milberger S, Curtis S, Chen L, Marrs A et al. (1996) Predictors of persistence and remission of ADHD: Results from a four-year prospective follow-up study of ADHD children. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 35:343–351
Biederman J, Mick E, Faraone SV (2000) Age-dependent decline of symptoms of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: Impact of remission definition and symptom type. Am J Psychiatry 157:816–818
Booth JR, Burman DD, Meyer JR, Lei Z, Trommer BL, Davenport ND, Li W, Parrish TB, Gitelman DR, Mesulam MM (2005) Larger deficits in brain networks for response inhibition than for visual selective attention in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). J Child Psychol Psychiatry 46(1):94–111
Bush G, Frazier JA, Rauch SL, Seidman LJ, Whalen PJ, Jenike MA et al. (1999) Anterior cingulate cortex dysfunction in attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder revealed by fMRI and the counting stroop. Biol Psychiatry 45:1542–1552
Bush G, Luu P, Posner MI (2000) Cognitive and emotional influences in anterior cingulate cortex. Trends Cogn Sci 4:215–222
Bush G, Vogt BA, Holmes J, Dale AM, Greve D, Jenike MA et al. (2002) Dorsal anterior cingulate cortex: A role in reward-based decision making. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 99:523–528
Bussing R, Grudnik J, Mason D, Wasiak M, Leonard C (2002) ADHD and conduct disorder: An MRI study in a community sample. World J Biol Psychiatry 3:216–220
Carter CS, Macdonald AM, Botvinick M, Ross LL, Stenger VA, Noll D, Cohen JD (2000) Parsing executive processes: strategic vs. evaluative functions of the anterior cingulate cortex. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 97(4):1944–1948
Casey BJ, Castellanos FX, Giedd JN, Marsh WL, Hamburger SD, Schubert AB et al. (1997) Implication of right frontostriatal circuitry in response inhibition and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 36:374–383
Castellanos FX, Giedd JN, Berquin PC, Walter JM, Sharp W, Tran T et al. (2001) Quantitative brain magnetic resonance imaging in girls with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry 58:289–295
Castellanos FX, Giedd JN, Eckburg P, Marsh WL, Vaituzis AC, Kaysen D et al. (1994) Quantitative morphology of the caudate nucleus in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Am J Psychiatry 151:1791–1796
Castellanos FX, Giedd JN, Marsh WL, Hamburger SD, Vaituzis AC, Dickstein DP et al. (1996) Quantitative brain magnetic resonance imaging in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry 53:607–616
Castellanos FX, Lee PP, Sharp W, Jeffries NO, Greenstein DK, Clasen LS et al. (2002) Developmental trajectories of brain volume abnormalities in children and adolescents with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. JAMA 288:1740–1748
Castellanos FX, Sharp WS, Gottesman RF, Greenstein DK, Giedd JN, Rapoport JL (2003) Anatomic brain abnormalities in monozygotic twins discordant for attention deficit disorder. Am J Psychiatry 160:1693–1696
Comings DE, Comings BG (1985) Tourette syndrome clinical and psychological aspects of 250 cases. Am J Hum Genet 37:435–450
Corbetta M, Shulman GL (2002) Control of goal-directed and stimulus-driven attention in the brain. Nat Rev Neurosci 3(3):201–215
Corbetta, M, Kincade JM, Ollinger JM, McAvoy MP, Shulman GL (2000) Voluntary orienting is dissociated from target detection in human posterior parietal cortex. Nat Neurosci 3(3):292–297
Coull JT, Buchel C, Friston KJ, Frith CD (1999) Noradrenergically mediated plasticity in a human attentional neuronal network. Neuroimage 10(6):705–715
Coull JT, Frith CD, Buchel C, Nobre AC (2000) Orienting attention in time: behavioural and neuroanatomical distinction between exogenous and endogenous shifts. Neuropsychologia 38(6):808–819
Coull JT, Frith CD, Frackowiak RS, Grasby PM (1996) A frontoparietal network for rapid visual information processing: a PET study of sustained attention and working memory. Neuropsychologia 34(11):1085–1095
Coull JT, Nobre AC, Frith CD (2001) The noradrenergic alpha2 agonist clonidine modulates behavioural and neuroanatomical correlates of human attentional orienting and alerting. Cereb Cortex 11(1):73–84
Desmond JE, Fiez JA (1998) Neuroimaging studies of the cerebellum: Language, learning, and memory. Trends Cogn Sci 2:355–362
Devinski O and D’Esposito M (2004) Neurology of Cognitive and Behavioral Disorders. In: Contemporary Neurology Series 68. Oxford University Press, pp 103–121
Dubois D, Defontaines B, Deweer B, Malapani C, Pillon B (1995) Cognitive and behavioural changes in patients with focal lesions of the basal ganglia. Adv Neurol 65:29–41
Duncan J, Owen AM (2000) Common regions of the human frontal lobe recruited by diverse cognitive demands. Trends Neurosci 23(10):475–483
Durston S (2003) A review of the biological bases of ADHD: What have we learned from imaging studies? Ment Retard Dev Disabilities Res Rev 9:184–195
Durston S, Hulshoff Pol HE, Schnack HG, Buitelaar JK, Steenhuis MP, Minderaa RB, Kahn RS, van Engeland H (2004) Magnetic resonance imaging of boys with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and their unaffected siblings. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 43(3):332–340
Durston S, Tottenham NT, Thomas KM, Davidson MC, Eigsti IM, Yang Y, Ulug AM, Casey BJ (2003) Differential patterns of striatal activation in young children with and without ADHD. Biol Psychiatry 53(10):871–878
Ellenberg L, Sperry RW (1979) Capacity for holding sustained attention following comissurotomy. Cortex 15:421–438
Ernst M, Kimes AS, London ED, Matochik JA, Eldreth D, Tata S, Contoreggi C, Leff M, Bolla K (2003) Neural substrates of decision making in adults with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Am J Psychiatry 160(6):1061–1070
Fan J, Bruce T, McCandliss D, Fossella J, Flombaum J, Posner MI (2005) The activation of attentional networks Neuroimage 26:471–479
Fan J, Wu Y, Fossella JA, Posner MI (2001) Assessing the heritability of attentional networks. BMC Neurosci. 2:14. Epub 2001 Sep 14. PubMed 11580865
Faraone SV, Biederman J, Spencer T, Wilens T, Seidman LJ, Mick E, Doyle AE (2000) Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in adults: An overview. Biol Psychiatry 48:9–20
Filipek PA, Semrud-Clikeman M, Steingard R, Kennedy D, Biederman J (1997) Volumetric MRI analysis: Comparing subjects having attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder with normal controls. Neurology 48:589–601
Giedd JN, Castellanos FX, Casey BJ, Kozuch P, King AC, Hamburger SD, Rapoport JL (1994) Quantitative morphology of the corpus callosum in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Am J Psychiatry 151:665–669
Glowinski J, Nieoullon A, Cheramy A (1978) Regulations of the activity of the nigrostriatal dopaminergic pathways by cortical, cerebellar, and sensory neuronal afferences. Adv Biochem Psychopharmacol 19:75–87
Grund T, Lehmann K, Bock N, Rothenberger A, Teuchert-Noodt G (2006) Influence of methylphenidate on brain development—an update of recent animal experiments. Behav Brain Funct 2:2 Pub Med 16403217
Haist F, Adamo M, Westerfield M, Courchesne E, Townsend J (2005) The functional neuroanatomy of spatial attention in autism spectrum disorder. Dev Neuropsychol 27(3):425–458
Hechtman L (1992) Long-term outcome in attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. Psychiatr Clin North Am 1:553–565
Heilman KM, Van Den Abbel T (1980) Right hemisphere dominance for attention: the mechanism underlying hemispheric asymmetries of inattention (neglect). Neurology 30:327–330
Hesslinger B, Tebartz van Elst L, Thiel T, Haegele K, Hennig J, Ebert D (2002) Frontoorbital volume reductions in adult patients with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Neurosci Lett 328:319–321
Hill DE, Yeo RA, Campbell RA, Hart B, Vigil J, Brooks W (2003) Magnetic resonance imaging correlates of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in children. Neuropsychology 17:496–506
Hynd GW (2002) Statistical analyses of structural magnetic resonance imaging of the head of the caudate nucleus in Colombian children with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. J Child Neurol 17:97–105
Hynd GW, Hern KL, Novey ES, Eliopulos D, Marshall R, Gonzalez JJ, Voeller KK (1993) Attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder and asymmetry of the caudate nucleus. J Child Neurol 8:339–347
Hynd GW, Semrud-Clikeman M, Lorys AR, Novey ES, Eliopulos D, Lytinen H (1991) Corpus callosum morphology in attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: Morphometric analysis of MRI J Learn Disabilities 24:141–146
Hynd GW, Semrud-Clikeman MS, Lorys AR, Novey ES, Eliopulos D (1990) Brain morphology in developmental dyslexia and attention deficit/hyperactivity. Arch Neurol 47:919–926
Jucaite A, Fernell E, Halldin C, Forssberg H, Farde L (2005) Reduced midbrain dopamine transporter binding in male adolescents with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: association between striatal dopamine markers and motor hyperactivity. Biol Psychiatry 57(3):229–238
Kates WR, Frederikse M, Mostofsky SH, Folley BS, Cooper K, Mazur-Hopkins P et al. (2002) MRI parcellation of the frontal lobe in boys with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder or Tourette syndrome. Psychiatry Res 116:63–81
Kessler RC, Adler L, Ames M, Barkley RA, Birnbaum H, Greenberg P, Johnston JA, Spencer T, Ustun TB (2005) The prevalence and effects of adult attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder on work performance in a nationally representative sample of workers. J Occup Environ Med 47(6):565–572
Kim BN, Lee JS, Shin MS, Cho SC, Lee DS (2002) Regional cerebral perfusion abnormalities in attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Statistical parametric mapping analysis. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 252(5):219–225
Konrad K, Neufang S, Hanisch C, Fink GR, Herpertz-Dahlmann B (2006) Dysfunctional Attentional Networks in Children with Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: Evidence from an Event-Related Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging Study. Biol Psychiatry 59(7):643–651
Lou H (1996) Etiology and pathogenesis of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD); significance of prematurity and perinatal hypoxic-haemodynamic encephalopathy. Acta Paediatr 85:1266–1271
Lyoo I, Noam G, Lee C, Lee H, Kennedy B, Renshaw P (1996) The corpus callosum and lateral ventricles in children with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: A brain magnetic resonance imaging study. Biol Psychiatry 40:1060–1063
Mannuzza S, Klein RG, Bessler A, Malloy P, LaPadula M (1993) Adult outcome of hyperactive boys: Educational achievement, occupational rank and psychiatric status. Arch Gen Psychiatry 50:565–576
Marsden CD (1982) Functions of the basal ganglia. Rinsho Shinkeigaku 22:1093–1094
Marsh PJ, Williams LM (2006) ADHD and schizophrenia phenomenology: Visual scanpaths to emotional faces as a potential psychophysiological marker? Neurosci Biobehav Rev 30:651–655
Mataro M, Garcia-Sanchez C, Junque C, Estevez-Gonzalez A, Pujol J (1997) Magnetic resonance imaging measurement of the caudate nucleus in adolescents with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder and its relationship with neuropsychological and behavioral measures. Arch Neurol 54:963–968
Max JE, Manes FF, Robertson BA, Mathews K, Fox PT, Lancaster J (2005) Prefrontal and executive attention network lesions and the development of attention-deficit/hyperactivity symptomatology. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 44(5):443–450
Mesulam MM (1990) Large-scale neurocognitive networks and distributed pro-cessing for attention, language and memory. Ann Neurol 28:597–613
Middleton FA, Strick PL (2001) Cerebellar projections to the prefrontal cortex of the primate. J Neurosci 21:700–712
Mostofsky S, Cooper K, Kates W, Denckla M, Kaufmann W (2002) Smaller prefrontal and premotor volumes in boys with attention-deficit/hyper-activity disorder. Biol Psychiatry 52:785–794
Mostofsky SH, Reiss AL, Lockhart P, Denckla MB (1998) Evaluation of cerebellar size in attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. J Child Neurol 13:434–439
Mostofsky SH, Rimrodt SL, Schafer JG, Boyce A, Goldberg MC, Pekar JJ, Denckla MB (2006) Atypical motor and sensory cortex activation in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a functional magnetic resonance imaging study of simple sequential finger tapping. Biol Psychiatry 59(1):48–56
Nieoullon A, Cheramy A, Glowinski J (1979) Control of the activity of the two dopaminergic systems by cortical, cerebellar and sensory afferents in the cat. Appl Neurophysiol 42:51–53
Oberlin BG, Alford JL,Marrocco RT (2005) Normal attention but abnormal stimulus alerting and conflict effect in combined subtype of ADHD. Behavioural Brain Research 165:1–11
Overmeyer S, Bullmore ET, Suckling J, Simmons A, Williams SC, Santosh PJ, Taylor E (2001) Distributed grey and white matter deficits in hyperkinetic disorder: MRI evidence for anatomical abnormality in an attentional network. Psychol Med 31:1425–1435
Pardo JV, Pardo P, Janer K, Raichle ME (1990) The anterior cingulated cortex mediates processing selection in the Stroop attention conflict paradigm. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 87:256–259
Peterson B, Riddle MA, Cohen DJ, Katz LD, Smith JC, Hardin MT, Leckman JF (1993) Reduced basal ganglia volumes in Tourette’s syndrome using three-dimensional reconstruction techniques from magnetic resonance images. Neurology 43(5):941–949
Peterson BS (2001) Neuroimaging studies of Tourette syndrome: a decade of progress. Adv Neurol 85:179–196
Piven J, Arndt S, Bailey J, Andreasen N (1996) Regional brain enlargement in autism: a magnetic resonance imaging study. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 35(4):530–536
Pliszka S, Glahn D, Semrud-Clikeman M, Franklin C, Perez III R, Xiong J, Liotti M (2006) Neuroimaging of inhibitory control areas in children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder who were treatment naïve or in long-term treatment Am J Psychiatry 163(6):1052–1060
Posner MI (1995) Attention in cognitive neuroscience: an overview. In: Gazzaniga MS (ed) The cognitive neurosciences. MIT Press, Cambridge MA, pp 615–624
Posner MI, Petersen SE (1990) The attention system of the human brain Ann Rev Neurosci 13:25–42
Rafal R, Robertson L (1995) The neurology of visual attention. In: Gazzaniga MS (ed) The cognitive neurosciences. MIT Press, Cambridge, MA, pp 625–648
Retz W, Retz-Junginger P, Hengesch G, Schneider M, Thome J, Pajonk FG, Salahi-Disfan A, Rees O, Wender PH, Rosler M (2004) Psychometric and psychopathological characterization of young male prison inmates with and without attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 254(4):201–208
Ro T, Borden C, Driver J, Rafal R (2001) Ipsilesional biases in saccades but not perception after lesions of the human inferior parietal lobule. J Cogn Neurosci (13):920–929
Rogers RD, Ramnani N, Mackay C, Wilson JL, Jezzard P, Carter CS, Smith SM (2004) Distinct portions of anterior cingulated cortex and medial prefrontal cortex are activated by reward processing in separable phases of decision-making cognition. Biol Psychiatry 55(6):594–602
Rosler M, Retz W, Retz-Junginger P, Hengesch G, Schneider M, Supprian T, Schwitzgebel P, Pinhard K, Dovi-Akue N, Wender P, Thome J (2004) Prevalence of attention deficit-/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and comorbid disorders in young male prison inmates. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 254(6):365–371
Rubia K, Overmeyer S, Taylor E, Brammer M, Williams SC, Simmons A, Bullmore ET (1999) Hypofrontality in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder during higher-order motor control: a study with functional MRI. Am J Psychiatry 156(6):891–896
Rubia K, Smith AB, Brammer MJ, Toone B, Taylor E (2005) Abnormal brain activation during inhibition and error detection in medication-naive adolescents with ADHD. Am J Psychiatry 162(6):1067–1075
Sagvolden T, Russell V, Abase H, Johansen E, Forshaw M (2005) Rodent Models of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. Biol Psychiatry 57:1239–1247
Schmahmann JD (2004) Disorders of the cerebellum: ataxia, dysmetria of thought, and the cerebellar cognitive affective syndrome. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci 16(3):367–278
Schmahmann JD (2001) The cerebrocerebellar system: Anatomic substrates of the cerebellar contribution to cognition and emotion. Int Rev Psychiatry 13:247–260
Schmahmann JD, Sherman JC (1998) The cerebellar cognitive affective syndrome. Brain 121:561–579
Schrimsher GW, Billingsley RL, Jackson EF, Moore BD 3rd (2002) Caudate nucleus volume asymmetry predicts attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) symptomatology in children. J Child Neurol 17(12):877–884
Schulz KP, Fan J, Tang CY, Newcorn JH, Buchsbaum MS, Cheung AM, Halperin JM (2004) Response inhibition in adolescents diagnosed with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder during childhood: an event-related FMRI study. Am J Psychiatry 161(9):1650–1657
Seidman LJ, Valera E, Bush G (2004a) Brain function and structure in adults with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. Psychiatr Clin North Am 27:323–347
Semrud-Clikeman MS, Filipek PA, Biederman J, Steingard R, Kennedy D, Renshaw P, Bekken K (1994) Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: Magnetic resonance imaging morphometric analysis of the corpus callosum. J AmAcad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 33:875–881
Silk T, Vance A, Rinehart N, Egan G, O’Boyle M, Bradshaw JL, Cunnington R (2005) Fronto-parietal activation in attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder, combined type: functional magnetic resonance imaging study. Br J Psychiatry 187:282–283
Singer HS (1997) Neurobiology of Tourette syndrome. Neurol Clin North Am 15 (2):357–378
Smith AB, Taylor E, Brammer M, Tone B, Rubia K (2006) Task-specific hypoactivation in prefrontal and temporoparietal brain regions during motor inhibition and task switching in medication-naïve children and adolescents with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Am J Psychiatry 163:1044–1051
Snider SR, Snider RS (1982) Structural and functional relationships between cerebellum and catecholamine systems: an overview. Exp Brain Res Suppl 6:557–606
Sowell ER, Thompson PM, Welcome SE, Henkenius AL, Toga AW, Peteron BS (2003) Cortical abnormalities in children and adolescents with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. Lancet 362:1699–1707
Spencer T, Biedermann J, Harding M, Hallett JJ, Laurino JP, Benson M, Kiessling LS (1995) The relationship between tic disorders and Tourette’s syndrome revisited. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 34:1133–1139
Sunshine JL, Lewin JS, Wu DH, Miller DA, Findling RL, Manos MJ, Schwartz MA (1997) Functional MR to localize sustained visual attention activation in patients with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: a pilot study. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 18(4):633–637
Tamm L, Menon V, Reiss AL (2006) Parietal attentional system aberrations during target detection in adolescents with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: event related fMRI evidence Am J Psychiatry 163:1033–1043
Tamm L, Menon V, Ringel J, Reiss A (2004) Event-Related fMRI Evidence of Frontotemporal Involvement in Aberrant Response Inhibition and Task Switching in Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. J. Am. Acad. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry 43(11):1430–1440
Tellerman K, Astrow A, Fahn S, Snider SR, Snider RS, Glassgold JM (1979) Cerebellar control of catecholaminergic activities: implications for drug therapy of movement disorders. Int J Neurol 13:135–155
Valera EM, Faraone SV, Biederman J, Poldrack RA, Seidman LJ (2005) Functional neuroanatomy of working memory in adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Biol Psychiatry 57(5):439–447
Volkow ND, Wang GJ, Fowler JS, Hitzemann R, Gatley J, Ding YS, Wong C, Pappas N (1998) Differences in regional brain metabolic responses between single and repeated doses of methylphenidate. Psychiatry Res 83:29–36
Volkow ND, Wang G-J, Fowler JS, Logan J, Angriest ’B, Hitzemann R, Lieberman J, Pappas N (1997) Effects of methylphenidate on regional brain glucose metabolism in humans: relationship to dopamine D2 receptors. Am J Psychiatry 154:50–55
Weintraub S, Mesulam M-M (1987) Right cerebral dominance in spatial attention: further evidence based on ipsilateral neglect. Arch Neurol 44:621–625
Witte EA, Davidson MC, Marrocco RT (1997) Effects of altering brain cholinergic activity on covert orienting of attention: comparison of monkey and human performance. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 132(4):324–334
Zaidel DW (1990) Memory and spatial cognition following commissurotomy. In: Boller F, Grafman J (eds) Handbook of Neuropsychology, vol. 4. Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp 151–166
Zametkin AJ, Nordahl TE, Gross M, King AC, Semple WE, Rumsey J et al. (1990) Cerebral glucose metabolism in adults with hyperactivity of childhood onset. New Engl J Med 323:1361–1366
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Schneider, M., Retz, W., Coogan, A. et al. Anatomical and functional brain imaging in adult attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)—A neurological view. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 256 (Suppl 1), i32–i41 (2006). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00406-006-1005-3
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00406-006-1005-3