Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Landscape use and fruit cultivation in Petra (Jordan) from Early Nabataean to Byzantine times (2nd century bc–5th century ad)

  • Original Article
  • Published:
Vegetation History and Archaeobotany Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Archaeobotanical analyses of charred seeds, fruit and wood charcoal from the residential part of the ez-Zantur area at Petra, Jordan, provide new data on the agricultural economy and use of the landscape in this famous merchant Nabataean city from the middle of the 2nd century bc to the beginning of the 5th century ad. The study is based on analyses of 7,640 whole and fragmented seeds, pips and fruit stones and 624 charcoal fragments sampled from household deposits. The results show that the food supply was based on common Mediterranean cultivated taxa such as cereals (Hordeum vulgare, Triticum aestivum/durum), pulses (Lens culinaris) and fruit (Olea europaea, Ficus carica, Vitis vinifera), which were probably cultivated both in the city and its hinterland. The by-products from the processing of cereals and fruit trees played a significant role in fuel supply, supplementing woody wild plants obtained from rocky slopes and the desert valley. The variety of fuel resources shows a major capacity to manage complex supply networks and perhaps the rarity of natural woodland cover. The existence of orchards within the city centre and notably olive groves is indicated in the Early Nabataean period (mid 2nd century to mid 1st century bc) but they expanded during the Classical Nabataean period (mid 1st century bc to 1st century ad), probably reflecting specialised fruit growing. Unusual plant remains such as Prunus armeniaca (apricot), P. persica (peach) and Juglans regia (walnut) are considered to be social indicators of prosperity. These archaeobotanical results fit with others from this region and match with the urbanization and social dynamics of the city of Petra.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Al-Muheisen Z (1990) Exemples d’installations hydrauliques et des techniques d’irrigation dans le domaine nabatéen (Pétra, Jordanie méridionale). In: Geyer B (ed) Techniques et pratiques hydro-agricoles traditionnelles en domaine irrigué. Geuthner, Paris, pp 507–511

    Google Scholar 

  • Al-Muheisen Z (2009) The water engineering and irrigation system of the Nabataeans. Yarmouk University, Irbid

    Google Scholar 

  • Al-Salameen Z (2005) Nabataean wine-presses from Bayda, southern Jordan. Aram 17:115–127. doi:10.2143/ARAM.17.0.583324

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Amr K, Al-Momani A (2001) Preliminary report on the archaeological component of the Wadi Musa water supply and wastewater project (1998–2000). Adaj 45:253–285

    Google Scholar 

  • Amr K, al-Momani A, Al-Nawafleh N, Al-Nawafleh S (2000) Summary results of the archaeological project at Khirbat an-Nawafla/Wadi Musa. Adaj 44:231–255

    Google Scholar 

  • Anderberg A-L (1994) Atlas of seeds and small fruits of Northwest-European plant species with morphological descriptions. Part 4: Resedaceae-Umbelliferae. Swedish Museum of Natural History, Stockholm

    Google Scholar 

  • Arjava A, Buchholz M, Gogos T (2007) The Petra papyri III. American Center of Oriental Research, Amman

    Google Scholar 

  • Arjava A, Buchholz M, Gagos T (2011) The Petra papyri IV. American Center of Oriental Research, Amman

    Google Scholar 

  • Barker GW, Adams R, Creighton OH et al (1998) Environment and land use in the Wadi Faynan, southern Jordan: the second season of geoarchaeology and landscape archaeology (1997). Levant 30:5–25

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Beckers B, Schütt B, Tsukamoto S, Frechen M (2013) Age determination of Petra’s engineered landscape—optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) and radiocarbon ages of runoff terrace systems in the Eastern Highlands of Jordan. J Archaeol Sci 40:333–348

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bedal L-A (2013) The Petra pool-complex. A Hellenistic paradeisos in the Nabataean capital. Results from the Petra “Lower Market” survey and excavation, 1998. Gorgias Press, Piscataway

    Google Scholar 

  • Bellwald U (2006) The hydraulic infrastructure of Petra. A model for water strategies in arid land. In: Wiplinger G (ed) Cura aquarum in Ephesus: proceedings of the 12th International Congress on the history of water management and hydraulic engineering in the Mediterranean region. Peeters, Louvain, pp 225–235

    Google Scholar 

  • Berggren G (1969) Atlas of seeds and small fruits of Northwest-European plant species with morphological descriptions. Part 2: Cyperaceae. Swedish Natural Science Research Council, Stockholm

    Google Scholar 

  • Berggren G (1981) Atlas of seeds and small fruits of Northwest-European plant species with morphological descriptions. Part 3: Salicaceae-Cruciferae. Swedish Natural Science Research Council, Stockholm

    Google Scholar 

  • Besançon J (2010) Géographie, environnements et potentiels productifs de la région de Pétra (Jordanie). In: Gatier P-L, Geyer B, Rousset M-O (eds) Entre nomades et sédentaires. Prospections en Syrie du Nord et en Jordanie du Sud, De Boccard, Paris, pp 19–71

    Google Scholar 

  • Bienkowski P (1990) Umm el-Biyara, Tawilan and Buseirah in retrospect. Levant 22:91–109

    Google Scholar 

  • Bienkowski P (2013) The Iron Age in Petra and the issue of continuity with Nabataean occupation. In: Mouton M, Schmid SSG (eds) Men on the rocks. The formation of Nabataean Petra. Logos, Berlin, pp 23–34

    Google Scholar 

  • Bignasca A, Desse-Berset M, Fellmann Brogli R et al (1996) Petra Ez-Zantur I: Ergebnisse der schweizerisch-liechtensteinischen Ausgrabungen 1988–1992. Von Zabern, Mainz

    Google Scholar 

  • Bouby L, Figueiral I, Bouchette A et al (2013) Bioarchaeological insights into the process of domestication of grapevine (Vitis vinifera l.) during Roman Times in southern France. PLoS ONE 8:e63195

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bouchaud C (2011) Paysages et pratiques d’exploitation des ressources végétales en milieux semi-aride et aride dans le sud du Proche-Orient: Approche archéobotanique des périodes antique et islamique (IVe siècle av. J.-C.-XVIe siècle ap. J.-C.). Dissertation, University of Paris 1 Panthéon-Sorbonne

  • Bouchaud C (2015) Agrarian legacies and innovations in the Nabataean territory. ArcheoSciences 39:103–124

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bouchaud C, Sachet I, Delhopital N (2011) Les bois et les fruits des tombeaux nabatéens de Madâ’in Sâlih/Hégra (Arabie Saoudite): les provenances des végétaux et leur utilisation en contexte funéraire. In: Delhon C, Théry-Parisot I, Thiébault S (eds) Des hommes et des plantes. Exploitation et gestion des ressources végétales de la Préhistoire à nos jours. Anthropobotanica 1. APDCA, Antibes, pp 3–21

  • Braadbaart F, Marinova E, Sarpaki A (2016) Charred olive stones: experimental and archaeological evidence for recognizing olive processing residues used as fuel. Veget Hist Archaeobot 25:415–430

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Byrd BF (2005) Early village life at Beidha, Jordan: Neolithic spatial organization and vernacular architecture. Oxford University Press, Oxford

    Google Scholar 

  • Cappers RTJ (2006) Roman foodprints at Berenike: archaeobotanical evidence of subsistence and trade in the Eastern Desert of Egypt. Cotsen Institute of Archaeology, University of California Press, Los Angeles

    Google Scholar 

  • Cappers RTJ, Neef R (2012) Handbook of plant palaeoecology. Barkhuis, Groningen

    Google Scholar 

  • Cappers RTJ, Neef R, Bekker RM (2012) Digital atlas of economic plants in archaeology. Barkhuis, Groningen

    Google Scholar 

  • Charles M (1998) Fodder from dung: the recognition and interpretation of dung-derived plant material from archaeological sites. Environ Archaeol 1:111–122

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Crawford P (1987) The Roman frontier in central Jordan. Interim report on the Limes Arabicus Project 1980–1985. (BAR International Series 340). In: Parker ST (ed) Food for a Roman Legion: the plant remains from el-Lejjun. Archaeopress, Oxford, pp 691–704

    Google Scholar 

  • Crawford P (2006) The plant remains. In: Parker ST (ed) The Roman frontier in central Jordan. Final report on the Limes Arabicus Project 1980–1989. Dumbarton Oaks, Washington, pp 453–461

    Google Scholar 

  • D’Alpoim Guedes J, Spengler R (2015) Sampling strategies in paleoethnobotanical analysis. In: Marston JM, d’Alpoim Guedes J, Warinner C (eds) Method and theory in paleoethnobotany. University of Colorado Press, Boulder, pp 77–94

    Google Scholar 

  • Eichhorn MP, Paris P, Herzog F et al (2006) Silvoarable systems in Europe—Past, present and future prospects. Agroforest Syst 67:29–50

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fahn A, Werker E, Baas P (1986) Wood anatomy and identification of trees and shrubs from Israel and adjacent regions. Israel Academy of Sciences and Humanities, Jerusalem

    Google Scholar 

  • Fall P (1990) Deforestation in southern Jordan: evidence from fossil hyrax middens. In: Bottema S, Entjes-Nieborg G, Van Zeist W (eds) Man’s role in the shaping of the eastern Mediterranean landscape. Balkema, Rotterdam, pp 271–282

    Google Scholar 

  • Fiema ZT (1996) Nabataean and Palmyrene commerce. The mechanisms of intensification. Les Annales Archéologiques Arabes Syriennes 42:189–195

    Google Scholar 

  • Fiema ZT (2002) Late-antique Petra and its hinterland: recent research and new interpretations. In: Humphrey J (ed) The Roman and Byzantine Near East 3. J Roman Archaeol, suppl 49:191–252

  • Fiema ZT (2003) Roman Petra (ad 106–363): a neglected subject. Zeitschrift des Deutschen Palästina-Vereins 119:38–58

    Google Scholar 

  • Fiema ZT, Schmid SSG (2016) Nabataean Basileia and the earthquake of ad 363 at Petra: some considerations. Mediterraneo Antico 17/2:419–432

  • Finné M, Holmgren K, Sundqvist HS et al (2011) Climate in the eastern Mediterranean, and adjacent regions, during the past 6000 years—a review. J Archaeol Sci 38:3,153–3,173

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Frösen J, Arjava A, Lehtinen M (2002) The Petra papyri I. American Center of Oriental Research, Amman

    Google Scholar 

  • Gebel HGK, Hermansen BD (2004) Ba’ja 2003: summary of the 5th season of excavation. Neo-Lithics 2:15–18

    Google Scholar 

  • Gebel HGK, Bienert H-D, Krämer T et al (1997) Ba’ja hidden in the Petra mountains: preliminary report on the 1997 excavations. In: Gebel HGK, Kafafi Z, Rollefson GO (eds) The prehistory of Jordan, vol 2., Perspectives from 1997Ex oriente, Berlin, pp 221–262

    Google Scholar 

  • Geer RM (translator) (1947) Diodorus of Sicily 9 (Books XVIII-XIX). Harvard University Press, Cambridge

  • Gentelle P (2009) Aménagement du territoire agricole de la ville de Pétra: la terre et l’eau. In: Mouton M, Al-Dbiyat M (eds) Stratégies d’acquisition de l’eau et société au Moyen-Orient depuis l’Antiquité. Institut Français d’archéologie du Proche-Orient, Beirut, pp 133–148

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Germer R (1985) Flora des pharaonischen Ägypten. Von Zabern, Mainz

    Google Scholar 

  • Gilliland DR (1986) Paleoethnobotany and paleoenvironment. In: LaBianca S, Lacelle L (eds) Hesban 2. Environmental foundation: studies of climatical, geological, hydrological, and phytological conditions in Hesban and vicinity. Andrews University Press, Berrien Springs, pp 123–142

  • Graf D (2007) Nabataeans under Roman rule (after ad 106). In: Politis KD (ed) The world of the Nabataeans. Steiner, Stuttgart, pp 173–186

    Google Scholar 

  • Graf DF (1990) The origin of the Nabataeans. Aram 2:45–75

    Google Scholar 

  • Graf DF (2013) Petra and the Nabataeans in the Early Hellenistic period: the literary and archaeological evidence. In: Mouton M, Schmid SSG (eds) Men on the rocks. The formation of Nabataean Petra. Logos, Berlin, pp 35–56

    Google Scholar 

  • Grawehr M (2010) Petra Ez Zantur IV: Ergebnisse der schweizerisch-liechtensteinischen Ausgrabungen. Eine Bronzewerkstatt des 1. Jhs. n. Chr. von ez Zantur in Petra, Jordanien. Von Zabern, Mainz

  • Grawehr M, Keller D (2006) Petra Ez Zantur III: Ergebnisse der schweizerisch-liechtensteinischen Ausgrabungen. Die Gläser aus Petra. Von Zabern, Mainz

    Google Scholar 

  • Hoppé C (2012) The macroscopic plant remains. In: Politis KD (ed) Excavations at the sanctuary of Lot at Deir’Ain’Abata in Jordan, 1988–2003. Jordan Distribution Agency, Amman, pp 518–522

    Google Scholar 

  • Hunt CO, Gilbertson DD, El-Rishi HA (2007) An 8000-year history of landscape, climate, and copper exploitation in the Middle East: the Wadi Faynan and the Wadi Dana National Reserve in southern Jordan. J Archaeol Sci 34:1,306–1,338

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jacquat C, Martinoli D (1999) Vitis vinifera l.: wild or cultivated? Study of the grape pips found at Petra, Jordan; 150 bc–ad 40. Veget Hist Archaeobot 8:25–30

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jones G (1991) Numerical analysis in archaeobotany. In: Behre K-E, Wasylikowa K, Van Zeist W (eds) Progress in old world palaeoethnobotany: A retrospective view on the occasion of 20 years of the international workgroup for palaeoethnobotany. Balkema, Rotterdam, pp 63–80

    Google Scholar 

  • Jones H (translator) (1961) The geography of Strabo 7 (Books XV–XVI). Harvard University Press, Cambridge

  • Karg S (1996) Pflanzenreste aus den nabatäischen und spätrömischen Schichten. In: Bignasca A (ed) Petra. Ez Zantur 1. Ergebnisse der schweizerisch-liechtensteinischen Ausgrabungen 1988–1992. Von Zabern, Mainz, pp 355–358

  • Kislev ME (1992) Vegetal food of the Bar Kokhba rebels at the Abi’or cave near Jericho. Rev Palaeobot Palynol 73:153–160

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Knodell A, Alcock S (2011) Brown University Petra Archaeological Project: the 2010 Petra area and wadi Silaysil survey. Adaj 55:489–508

    Google Scholar 

  • Koenen L, Kaimio J, Kaimio M, Daniel RW (2013) The Petra papyri II. American Center of Oriental Research, Amman

    Google Scholar 

  • Kolb B (2003) Petra—from tent to mansion: living on the terraces of Ez-Zantur. In: Markoe G (ed) Petra rediscovered. Lost city of the Nabataeans. Thames and Hudson, London, pp 230–237

    Google Scholar 

  • Kolb B (2007) Nabataean private architecture. In: Politis KD (ed) The world of the Nabataeans. Steiner, Stuttgart, pp 145–172

    Google Scholar 

  • Kolb B, Keller C (2000) Schweizerisch-liechtensteinische Ausgrabungen auf ez Zantur in Petra 2000. Fondation Suisse-Liechtenstein pour les recherches archéologiques à l’étranger, Basel

    Google Scholar 

  • Kolb B, Keller D (2001) Swiss-Liechtenstein excavation at az-Zantur/Petra: the eleventh season. Adaj 45:311–324

    Google Scholar 

  • Kouki P (2009) Archaeological evidence of land tenure in the Petra region, Jordan: nabataean-Early Roman to Late Byzantine. J Mediterr archaeol 22:29–56

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kouki P (2012) The Hinterland of a city: rural settlement and land use in the Petra region from the Nabataean-Roman to the Early Islamic period. Dissertation, University of Helsinki

  • Kouki P (2013) The intensification of Nabataean agriculture in the Petra region. In: Mouton M, Schmid SSG (eds) Men on the rocks, the formation of Nabataean Petra. Logos, Berlin, pp 323–334

    Google Scholar 

  • Lavento M, Siiriäinen A, Jansson H, Kouki P, Mukkala A, Silvonen S, Tenhunen T (2004) The intensive survey around Jabal Harûn: settlement history and land use in the area. Shaj 8:225–235

    Google Scholar 

  • Lavento M, Kouki P, Silvonen S, Ynnilä H, Huotari M (2007) Discussions on terrace cultivation and its relationship to the city of Petra, in southern Jordan. Shaj 9:145–156

    Google Scholar 

  • Leroy SAG (2010) Pollen analysis of core DS7-1SC (Dead Sea) showing intertwined effects of climatic change and human activities in the Late Holocene. J Archaeol Sci 37:306–316

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lucke B (2008) Demise of the Decapolis. Past and present desertification in the context of soil development, land use, and climate. VDM, Saarbrücken

    Google Scholar 

  • Marcus R (translator) (1966) Josephus. Jewish antiquities (Books XII–XVI). Harvard University Press, Cambridge

  • Margaritis E, Jones M (2006) Beyond cereals: crop processing and Vitis vinifera l. Ethnography, experiment and charred grape remains from Hellenistic Greece. J Archaeol Sci 33:784–805

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Marinova E, Van der Valk JMA, Valamoti M, Bretschneider J (2011) An experimental approach for tracing olive processing residues in the archaeobotanical record, with preliminary examples from Tell Tweini, Syria. Veget Hist Archaeobot 20:471–478

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Marston JM (2015) Ratios and simple statistics in paleoethnobotanical analysis: data exploration and hypothesis testing. In: Marston JM, d’Alpoim Guedes J, Warinner C (eds) Method and theory in paleoethnobotany. University of Colorado Press, Boulder, pp 163–180

    Google Scholar 

  • Martinoli D (1997) Étude archéobotanique de macrorestes végétaux d’époques nabatéenne et romaine tardive, Ez-Zantur, Pétra, Jordanie. Dissertation, University of Neuchâtel

  • Mayerson P (1986) Arid zone farming in antiquity: a study of ancient agricultural and related hydrological practices in southern Palestine. University Microfilms International, Michigan

    Google Scholar 

  • McKenzie JS (2005) The architecture of Petra, 2nd edn. Oxbow Books, Oxford

    Google Scholar 

  • Miller NF, Smart TL (1984) Intentional burning of dung as fuel: a mechanism for the incorporation of charred seeds into the archaeological record. J Ethnobiol 4:15–28

    Google Scholar 

  • Nasarat M, Danah FA, Naimat S (2012) Agriculture in sixth-century Petra and its hinterland, the evidence from the Petra papyri. Arab Archaeol Epigr 23:105–115

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Neef R (1987) Botanical remains. In: Killick A (ed) Udhruh, caravan city and desert oasis. Romsey, Hampshire, p 16

    Google Scholar 

  • Neef R (1990) Introduction, development and environmental implications of olive culture: the evidence from Jordan. In: Bottema S, Entjes-Nieborg P, Van Zeist W (eds) Man’s role in the shaping of the eastern Mediterranean landscape. Balkema, Rotterdam, pp 295–306

    Google Scholar 

  • Nefzaoui A (1988) Contribution à la rentabilité de l’oléiculture par une valorisation optimale des sous-produits. In: Allaya M (ed) L’économie de l’olivier. CIHEAM, Paris, pp 153–173

    Google Scholar 

  • Netzer E (2003) Nabatäische Architektur, insbesondere Gräber und Tempel. Von Zabern, Mainz

    Google Scholar 

  • Neumann K, Schoch W, Détienne P, Schweingruber FH (2001) Woods of the Sahara and the Sahel: an anatomical atlas. Haupt, Bern

    Google Scholar 

  • Neumann FH, Kagan EJ, Leroy SAG, Baruch U (2010) Vegetation history and climate fluctuations on a transect along the Dead Sea west shore and their impact on past societies over the last 3500 years. J Arid Environ 74:756–764

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Oleson J (1995) The origins and design of Nabataean water-supply systems. Shaj 5:707–719

    Google Scholar 

  • Ortloff CR (2005) The water supply and distribution system of the Nabataean city of Petra (Jordan), 300 bc–ad 300. Camb Archaeol J 15:93–109

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Palmer C (2001) Traditional agriculture. In: MacDonald B, Adams R, Bienkowski P (eds) The archaeology of Jordan. Sheffield Academic Press, Sheffield, pp 621–629

    Google Scholar 

  • R Core Team (2015) R: a language and environment for statistical computing. R foundation for statistical Computing, Vienna. https://www.R-project.org/

  • Rambeau CMC (2010) Palaeoenvironmental reconstruction in the southern Levant: synthesis, challenges, recent developments and perspectives. Philos Trans R Soc A 368:5,225–5,248

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ramsay J (2010) Trade or trash: an examination of the archaeobotanical remains from the Byzantine harbour at Caesarea Maritima, Israel. Int J Naut Archaeol 39:376–382

    Google Scholar 

  • Ramsay J (2013) Plant remains. In: Oleson JP, Schick R (eds) Humayma Excavation Project 2. Nabataean campground and necropolis Byzantine churches, and Early Islamic domestic structures. American Schools of Oriental Research, Boston, pp 351–380

    Google Scholar 

  • Ramsay J, Bedal L-A (2015) Garden variety seeds? Botanical remains from the Petra Garden and Pool Complex. Veget Hist Archaeobot 24:621–634

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ramsay J, Smith AM II (2013) Desert agriculture at Bir Madhkur: the first archaeobotanical evidence to support the timing and scale of agriculture in the hinterland of Petra. J Arid Environ 99:51–63

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Renel F, Mouton M (2013) The architectural remains and pottery assemblage from the early phases at the Qasr al-Bint. In: Mouton M, Schmid SSG (eds) Men on the rocks. The formation of Nabataean Petra. Logos, Berlin, pp 57–78

    Google Scholar 

  • Renel F, Mouton M, Augé C et al. (2012) Dating the early phases under the temenos of the Qasr al-Bint at Petra. In: Supplement to Proceedings of the Seminar for Arabian Studies, vol. 42, pp 1–16

  • Ruben I (2006) Field guide to the plants and animals of Petra. Petra National Trust, Amman

    Google Scholar 

  • Russell KW (1995) Traditional Bedouin agriculture at Petra: ethnoarchaeological insights into the evolution of food production. Shaj 5:695–696

    Google Scholar 

  • Ryzewski K, Sheldon BW, Alcock SE et al (2011) Multiple assessments of local properties, production, and performance in metal objects: an experimental case study from Petra, Jordan. Archaeol Anthropol Sci 3:173–184

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sachet I, Delhopital N, Bouchaud C, Tomé Carpentier C (2013) The Hellenistic-Nabataean crypt in tower tomb 303 at ath-Thughrah in Petra. Results of the archaeological and multi-disciplinary studies. Annu Dep Antiqu Jordan 57:141–166

    Google Scholar 

  • Schmid SSG (2000) Die Feinkeramik der Nabatäer. Typologie, Chronologie und kulturhistorische Hintergründe. In: Schmid SSG, Kolb B (eds) Petra—Ez Zantur II. Ergebnisse der schweizerisch-liechtensteinischen Ausgrabungen. Von Zabern, Mainz, pp 1–199

  • Schmid SSG (2001) The Nabataeans: travellers between lifestyles. In: MacDonald B, Adams R, Bienkowski P (eds) The archaeology of Jordan. Sheffield Academic Press, Sheffield, pp 367–426

    Google Scholar 

  • Schmid SSG, Kolb B (2000) Petra—Ez Zantur II: Ergebnisse der schweizerisch-liechtensteinischen Ausgrabungen. Von Zabern, Mainz

    Google Scholar 

  • Schmid SSG, Bienkowski P, Fiema ZT, Kolb B (2012) The palaces of the Nabataean kings at Petra. In: Nehmé L, Wadeson L (eds) The Nabataeans in focus: current archaeological research at Petra. Archaeopress, Oxford

    Google Scholar 

  • Schweingruber FH (1990) Anatomy of European wood: an atlas for the identification of European trees, shrubs and dwarf shrubs. Haupt, Bern

    Google Scholar 

  • Simchoni O, Kislev ME (2009) Relict plant remains in the “Caves of the Spear”. Israel Explor J 59:47–62

    Google Scholar 

  • Simms SR, Russell KW (1997) Bedouin hand harvesting of wheat and barley: implications for early cultivation in southwestern Asia. Curr Anthropol 38:696–702

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stucky R (1995) The Nabataean house and the urbanistic system of the habitation quarters in Petra. Shaj 5:193–198

    Google Scholar 

  • Studer J (2002) City and monastery: animals raised and consumed in the Petra area. In: Frösen J, Fiema ZT (eds) Petra: a city forgotten and rediscovered. University Press, Helsinki, pp 167–172

    Google Scholar 

  • Studer J (2007) Animal exploitation in the Nabataean world. In: Politis KD (ed) The world of the Nabataeans. Steiner, Stuttgart, pp 251–272

    Google Scholar 

  • Studer J, Schneider A (2008) Camel use in the Petra region, Jordan: 1st century bc to 4th century ad. In: Vila E, Gourichon L, Choyke AM, Buitenhuis H (eds) Archaeozoology of the Near East VIII. Maison de l’Orient et de la Méditerranée, Lyon, pp 581–596

    Google Scholar 

  • Tengberg M (2012) Beginnings and early history of date palm garden cultivation in the Middle East. J Arid Environ 86:139–147

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Thackeray H (translator) (1967) Josephus. The Jewish war (Books I-II). Harvard University Press, Cambridge

  • Thanheiser U (2002) Roman agriculture and gardening in Egypt as seen from Kellis. In: Hope CA, Bowen GE (eds) Dakhleh oasis project: preliminary reports on the 1994–1995 to 1998–1999 field Seasons. Oxbow, Oxford, pp 299–310

    Google Scholar 

  • Théry-Parisot I, Chabal L, Chrzavzez J (2010) Anthracology and taphonomy, from wood gathering to charcoal analysis. A review of the taphonomic processes modifying charcoal assemblages, in archaeological contexts. Palaeogeogr Palaeoeclimatol Palaeoecol 291:142–153

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tholbecq L (2013) The hinterland of Petra (Jordan) and the Jabal Shara during the Nabataean, Roman and Byzantine periods. In: Mouton M, Schmid SSG (eds) Men on the rocks. The formation of Nabataean Petra. Logos, Berlin, pp 295–312

    Google Scholar 

  • Tholbecq L, Durand C (2013) A late second-century bc Nabataean occupation at Jabal Numayr: the earliest phase of the “Obodas Chapel” sanctuary. In: Mouton M, Schmid SSG (eds) Men on the rocks. The formation of Nabataean Petra. Logos, Berlin, pp 205–222

    Google Scholar 

  • Tholbecq L, Durand C, Bouchaud C (2008) A Nabataean rock-cut sanctuary in Petra: second preliminary report on the “Obodas chapel” excavation project, Jabal Numayr (2005–2007). Adaj 52:235–254

    Google Scholar 

  • Van der Veen M (1999) The economic value of chaff and straw in arid and temperate zones. Veget Hist Archaeobot 8:211–224

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Van der Veen M (2011) Consumption, trade and innovation: Exploring the botanical remains from the Roman and Islamic Ports at Quseir al-Qadim, Egypt. Africa Magna Verlag, Frankfurt

    Google Scholar 

  • Warnock P (2007) Identification of ancient olive oil processing methods based on olive remains. BAR International Series 1635, Archaeopress, Oxford

  • Wenning R (2007) The Nabataeans in History. In: Politis KD (ed) The world of the Nabataeans. Steiner, Stuttgart, pp 25–44

    Google Scholar 

  • Willcox G (1992) Archaeobotanical investigations at Pella (1983). In: McNicoll T (ed) Pella in Jordan. Australian National Gallery, Sydney, pp 253–256

    Google Scholar 

  • Willcox G (2003) L’économie végétale à Bosra et à Si’: résultats d’analyse de restes végétaux carbonisés des périodes romaine, byzantine et islamique. In: Dentzer-Feydy J, Dentzer JM, Blanc P-M (eds) Hauran II. Institut français d’archéologie du Proche-Orient, Beirut, pp 177–184

    Google Scholar 

  • Zabaniotou AA, Kalogiannis G, Kappas E, Karabelas AJ (2000) Olive residues (cuttings and kernels) rapid pyrolysis product yields and kinetics. Biomass Bioenerg 18:411–420

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zaitschek DV (1962) Remains of plants from the Cave of the Pool. Israel Explor J 12:184–185

    Google Scholar 

  • Zeitler JP (1990) Houses, sherds and bones: Aspects of daily life in Petra. In: Kermer S (ed) The Near East in Antiquity: German contributions to the archaeology of Jordan, Palestine, Syria, Lebanon and Egypt, vol 1. Goethe-Institut, Amman, pp 39–51

    Google Scholar 

  • Zeitler JP (1991) Gebäude, Gewerbe und Geschirr. In: Lindner M, Zeitler JP (eds) Petra, Königin der Weihrauchstraße. VKA-Verlag, Fürth, pp 71–78

    Google Scholar 

  • Zeitler JP (1993) Excavations and surveys in Petra 1989–1990. Syria 70:255–260

    Google Scholar 

  • Zohary M (1973) Geobotanical foundations of the Middle East. Fischer, Stuttgart

    Google Scholar 

  • Zohary D, Hopf M, Weiss E (2012) Domestication of plants in the Old World: the origin and spread of domesticated plants in Southwest Asia, Europe, and the Mediterranean Basin, 4th edn. Oxford University Press, Oxford

    Book  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

Funding for this work was provided by the Swiss-Liechtenstein Foundation for Archaeological Research Abroad (SLSA) and the Institute of Plant and Microbial Biology of Zürich University. Our thanks go particularly to the project directors Rolf A. Stucky and Bernhard Kolb (University of Basel, Switzerland), to Matthias Grawehr (Unibas, Basel), Nicolas Giret (CNRS, Orsay) and the two anonymous reviewers for their remarks and re-readings, and to Rebecca Miller for the English editing.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Archéozoologie, Archéobotanique. Sociétés, Pratiques, Environnements. UMR 7209, CNRS, MNHN, Sorbonne Universités, CP56, 55 rue Buffon, 75005, Paris, France

    Charlene Bouchaud

  2. Department of Plant and Microbial Biology, University of Zürich, Zollikerstrasse 107, 8008, Zürich, Switzerland

    Christiane Jacquat

  3. University of Basel, Utengasse 43, 4058, Basel, Switzerland

    Danièle Martinoli

Authors
  1. Charlene Bouchaud
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Christiane Jacquat
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Danièle Martinoli
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Charlene Bouchaud.

Additional information

Communicated by A. Fairbairn.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Bouchaud, C., Jacquat, C. & Martinoli, D. Landscape use and fruit cultivation in Petra (Jordan) from Early Nabataean to Byzantine times (2nd century bc–5th century ad). Veget Hist Archaeobot 26, 223–244 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00334-016-0582-y

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00334-016-0582-y

Keywords

Search

Navigation