Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Subsidence hazards due to evaporite dissolution in the United States

  • Original Article
  • Published:
Environmental Geology

Abstract

Evaporites, including gypsum (or anhydrite) and salt, are the most soluble of common rocks; they are dissolved readily to form the same type of karst features that typically are found in limestones and dolomites, and their dissolution can locally result in major subsidence structures. The four basic requirements for evaporite dissolution to occur are: (1) a deposit of gypsum or salt; (2) water, unsaturated with CaSO4 or NaCl; (3) an outlet for escape of dissolving water; and (4) energy to cause water to flow through the system. Evaporites are present in 32 of the 48 contiguous states of the United States, and they underlie about 35–40% of the land area. Karst is known at least locally (and sometimes quite extensively) in almost all areas underlain by evaporites, and some of these karst features involve significant subsidence. The most widespread and pronounced examples of both gypsum and salt karst and subsidence are in the Permian basin of the southwestern United States, but many other areas also are significant. Human activities have caused some evaporite–subsidence development, primarily in salt deposits. Boreholes may enable (either intentionally or inadvertently) unsaturated water to flow through or against salt deposits, thus allowing development of small to large dissolution cavities. If the dissolution cavity is large enough and shallow enough, successive roof failures above the cavity can cause land subsidence or catastrophic collapse.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4
Fig. 5
Fig. 6
Fig. 7
Fig. 8
Fig. 9

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Anderson RY, Dean WE, Kirkland DW, Snider HI (1972) Permian Castile varved evaporite sequence, west Texas and New Mexico. Geol Soc Amer Bull 83:59–87

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Anderson RY, Kietzke KK, Rhodes DJ (1978) Development of dissolution breccias, northern Delaware basin, New Mexico and Texas. In: Austin GS (eds) Geology and mineral deposits of Ochoan rocks in Delaware basin and adjacent areas. New Mexico Bur of Mines and Min Resources Circ 159:47–52

    Google Scholar 

  • Bachman GO (1976) Cenozoic deposits of southeastern New Mexico and an outline of the history of evaporite dissolution. US Geol Surv J Res 4(2):135–149

    Google Scholar 

  • Bachman GO (1984) Regional geology of Ochoan evaporites, northern part of the Delaware basin. New Mexico Bur Mines Min Resour Circ 184:22

    Google Scholar 

  • Baumgardner RW, Hoadley AD, Goldstein AG (1982) Formation of the Wink Sink, a salt dissolution and collapse feature, Winkler County, Texas. Tex Bur of Econ Geol Report of Investig 114:38

    Google Scholar 

  • Belski DS (ed) (1992) GYPKAP report, no. 2, 1988–1991. Nat Speleological Soc, Southwest Region: p 56

  • Black TJ (1984) Tectonics and geology in karst development of northern Lower Michigan. In: Beck BF (ed) Sinkholes: their geology, engineering and environmental impact, Proceedings of the first multidisciplinary conference on sinkholes. Balkema, Rotterdam, pp 87–91

  • Black TJ (1997) Evaporite karst of the northern Lower Peninsula of Michigan. Carbonates Evap 12:81–83

    Google Scholar 

  • Bozeman S (ed) (1987) The D.C. Jester Cave system. Central Oklahoma Grotto, Okla Underground 14:56

  • Coates GK, Lee CA, McClain WC, Senseny PE (1985) Closure and collapse of man-made cavities in salt. In: Schreiber BC, Harner HL (eds) Sixth international symposium on salt. Alexandria, Virginia, The Salt Institute 2:139–157

  • Cooper AH (1995) Subsidence hazards due to the dissolution of Permian gypsum in England: investigation and remediation. In: Beck BF (ed) Karst geohazards: Proceedings of 5th multidisciplinary conference on sinkholes. Balkema, Rotterdam, pp 23–29

  • Davis AD, Rahn PH (1997) Karstic gypsum problems at wastewater stabilization sites in the Black Hills of South Dakota. Carbonates and Evap 12:73–80

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Dean WE, Johnson KS (eds) (1989) Anhydrite deposits of the United States and characteristics of anhydrite important for storage of radioactive wastes. US Geol Surv Prof Paper 1794:132

    Google Scholar 

  • Dunrud CR, Nevins BB (1981) Solution mining and subsidence in evaporite rocks in the United States. US Geol Surv Misc Inv Ser Map I-1298

  • Eck W, Redfield RC (1965) Engineering geology problems at Sanford Dam, Borger, Texas. Eng Geol 1:15–25

    Google Scholar 

  • Ege JR (1984) Mechanisms of surface subsidence resulting from solution extraction of salt. In: Holzer TL (ed) Man-induced land subsidence. Geol Soc Amer, Rev in Eng Geology 6:203–221

  • Ege, JR (1985) Maps showing distribution, thickness, and depth to salt deposits of the United States. US Geol Surv Open-File Report 85–28:11

  • Elowski RC, Ostrander AC (1977) Gypsum karst and related features in the Michigan basin, In: Official 1977 guidebook, Alpena, Michigan. Nat Speleological Soc pp 31–41

  • Fischer WA, Hackman RJ (1964) Geologic map of the Torrance Station 4 NE quadrangle, Lincoln County, New Mexico. US Geol Surv Misc Geol Invest Map 1–400:4

  • Forbes J, Nance R (1997) Stratigraphy, sedimentology, and structural geology of gypsum caves in southeast New Mexico. Carbonates and Evap 12:64–72

    Google Scholar 

  • Friedman GM (1997) Solution-collapse breccias and paleokarst resulting from dissolution of evaporite rocks, especially sulfates. Carbonates and Evap 12:53–63

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • George AI (1977) Evaluation of sulfate water quality in north-central Kentucky karst. In: Dilamarter RR, Csallany SC (eds) Hydrologic problems in karst regions. West Kentucky Univ, Bowling Green, Kentucky, pp 340–356

  • Getchell FJ (1995) Subsidence and related features in the Tully Valley, central New York. In: Beck BF (ed) Karst geohazards: Proceedings of the 5th multidisciplinary conference on sinkholes. Balkema, Rotterdam, pp 31–42

  • Gourley C (1992) Geological aspects of the Quail Creek Dike failure. In: Harty KM (ed) Engineering and environmental geology of southwestern Utah. Utah Geol Assoc Pub 21:17–38

    Google Scholar 

  • Gustavson TC, Finley RJ (1985) Late Cenozoic geomorphic evolution of the Texas Panhandle and northeastern New Mexico—case studies of structural controls on regional drainage development. Tex Bur of Econ Geol Report of Investig 148:42

    Google Scholar 

  • Gustavson TC, Finley RJ, McGillis KA (1980) Regional dissolution of Permian salt in the Anadarko, Dalhart, and Palo Duro basins of the Texas Panhandle. Tex Bur of Econ Geol Report of Investig 106:40

    Google Scholar 

  • Gustavson TC, Simpkins WW, Alhades A, Hoadley A (1982) Evaporite dissolution and development of karst features on the Rolling Plains of the Texas Panhandle. Earth Surf Proc and Landforms 7:545–563

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Halbouty MT (1967) Salt domes, Gulf region, United States and Mexico. Gulf Publ Co., Houston, p 425

    Google Scholar 

  • Hill CA (1996) Geology of the Delaware basin, Guadalupe, Apache, and Glass Mountains, New Mexico and West Texas. Permian Basin Sec–SEPM Publ 96–39:480

  • Hite RJ, Lohman SW (1973) Geologic appraisal of Paradox basin salt deposits for waste emplacement. US Geol Surv Open-File Report 4339–6:75

  • Johnson KS (1981) Dissolution of salt on the east flank of the Permian basin in the southwestern USA. Jour of Hydro 54:75–93

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Johnson KS (1987) Development of the Wink sink in west Texas due to salt dissolution and collapse. In: Beck BF, Wilson WL (eds) Karst hydrogeology: Proceedings of 2nd multidisciplinary conference on sinkholes. Balkema, Rotterdam: 127–136. Also published in 1989. Environ Geol and Wat Sci 14:81–92

    Google Scholar 

  • Johnson KS (1989) Salt dissolution, interstratal karst, and ground subsidence in the northern part of the Texas Panhandle. In: Beck BF (ed) Proceedings of the 3rd multidisciplinary conference on sinkholes. Balkema, Rotterdam, pp 115–121

  • Johnson KS (1990) Hydrogeology and karst of the Blaine gypsum–dolomite aquifer, southwestern Oklahoma. Oklahoma Geol Surv Spec Pub 90–5:31

  • Johnson KS (1992) Evaporite karst in the Permian Blaine Formation and associated strata in western Oklahoma, USA. In: Back W, Herman JS, Paloc H (eds) Hydrogeology of selected karst regions: Internat Assoc Hydro 13, Verlag Heinz Heisse Publ Co., Hannover, Germany, pp 405–420

  • Johnson KS (1993) Dissolution of Permian Salado salt during Salado time in the Wink area, Winkler County, Texas. In: Love DW (ed) Carlsbad region, New Mexico and west Texas. New Mexico Geol Soc 44th Field Conference, pp 211–218

  • Johnson KS (1996) Evaporite karst in the United States. Internat Jour Speleology 25(3–4):183–193

    Google Scholar 

  • Johnson KS (1997) Evaporite karst in the United States. Carbonates and Evap 12(1):2–14

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Johnson KS (1998) Land subsidence above man-made salt-dissolution cavities. In: Borchers JW (ed) Land subsidence case studies and current research: Proceedings of the Dr. Joseph F. Poland symposium on land subsidence. Assoc Eng Geol Spec Publ 8:385–392

    Google Scholar 

  • Johnson KS, Gonzales S (1978) Salt deposits in the United States and regional geologic characteristics important for storage of radioactive waste. Prep for Union Carbide Corp, Nuc Div, Office of Waste Isol, Y/OWI/SUB–7414/1:188

  • Kappel WM (1998) Mudboils, land subsidence, and landslides in the Tully Valley of central New York. In: Borchers JW (ed) Land subsidence case studies and current research: Proceedings of the Dr. Joseph F. Poland symposium on land subsidence. Assoc Eng Geol Spec Pub 8:453–463

    Google Scholar 

  • Kelley VC (1971) Geology of the Pecos country, southeastern New Mexico. New Mexico Bur Mines and Min Res Mem 24:69

    Google Scholar 

  • Kirkland DW, Evans R (1980) Origin of castiles on Gypsum Plain of Texas and New Mexico. In: Dickerson PW, Hoffer JM (eds) Trans-Pecos region, southeastern New Mexico and west Texas. New Mexico Geol Soc 31st Field Conference, pp 173–178

  • Kostick DS (1994) Salt. In: Carr DD (ed) Industrial Minerals and rocks, 6th edn. Soc for Mining, Metal, and Explor, Inc. Denver, pp 851–868

    Google Scholar 

  • Krietler CW, Dutton SP (1983) Origin and diagenesis of cap rock, Gyp Hill and Oakwood salt domes, Texas. Texas Bur Econ Geol Report of Invest 131:58

    Google Scholar 

  • Lambert SJ (1983) Dissolution and evaporites in and around the Delaware basin, southeastern New Mexico and west Texas. Sandia Natl Lab, Albuquerque, New Mexico, SAND82–0461

  • Landes KK (1959) The Mackinac breccia. In: Geology of Mackinac Island and Lower and Middle Devonian south of the Straits of Mackinac. Michigan Basin Geol Soc, Ann Geol Exc Guide, pp 19–24

  • Lefond SJ (1969) Handbook of world salt resources. Plenum Press, New York, p 384

    Google Scholar 

  • Maley VL, Huffington RM (1953) Cenozoic fill and evaporite solution in the Delaware basin, Texas and New Mexico. Geol Soc Amer Bull 64:539–546

    Google Scholar 

  • Martinez JD (1991) Salt domes. American Scientist 79:420–431

    Google Scholar 

  • Martinez JD, Johnson KS, Neal JT (1998) Sinkholes in evaporite rocks. American Scientist 86:38–51

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McGrain P, Helton WL (1964) Gypsum and anhydrite in the St. Louis Limestone in northwestern Kentucky. Kentucky Geol Surv Ser X, Info Circ 13:26

    Google Scholar 

  • McGregor DJ (1954) Gypsum and anhydrite deposits in southwestern Indiana. Indiana Geol Surv Report Prog 8:24

    Google Scholar 

  • McGregor DR, Pendry EC, McGregor DL (1963) Solution caves in gypsum, north-central Texas. Jour Geol 71:108–115

    Google Scholar 

  • Myers AJ, Gibson AM, Glass BP, Patrick CR (1969) Guide to Alabaster Cavern and Woodward County, Oklahoma. Oklahoma Geol Surv Guide 15:38

    Google Scholar 

  • Neal JT (1995) Supai salt karst features: Holbrook basin, Arizona. In: Beck BF (ed) Karst geohazards: Proceedings of 5th multidisciplinary conference on sinkholes. Balkema, Rotterdam, pp 53–59

  • Neal JT, Bauer SJ, Ehgartner BL (1998a) Mine-induced sinkholes over the U.S. Strategic Petroleum Reserve (SPR) storage facility at Weeks Island, Louisiana: geologic causes and effects. In: Borchers JW (ed) Land subsidence case studies and current research: Proceedings of the Dr. Joseph F. Poland symposium on land subsidence. Assoc Eng Geol Spec Pub 8:327–336

    Google Scholar 

  • Neal JT, Colpitts RM, Johnson KS (1998b) Evaporite-karst features: Holbrook basin, Arizona. In: Borchers JW (ed) Land subsidence case studies and current research: Proceedings of the Dr. Joseph F. Poland symposium on land subsidence. Assoc Eng Geol Spec Pub 8:453–463

    Google Scholar 

  • Nieto AS, Young RA (1998) Retsof salt mine collapse and aquifer dewatering, Genesee Valley, Livingston County, New York. In: Borchers JW (ed) Land subsidence case studies and current research: Proceedings of the Dr. Joseph F. Poland symposium on land subsidence. Assoc Eng Geol Spec Pub 8:309–325

    Google Scholar 

  • Nieto-Pescetto AS, Hendron AJ (1977) Study of sinkholes related to salt production in the area of Detroit, Michigan. Solution Mining Res Inst Open-file Report, Woodstock, Illinois, p 49

  • Parker JM (1967) Salt solution and subsidence structures, Wyoming, North Dakota, and Montana. Amer Assoc Petrol Geol Bull 51:1929–1947

    Google Scholar 

  • Payton CC (1992) Geotechnical investigation and foundation design for the reconstruction of Quail Creek Dike. In: Harty KM (ed) Engineering and environmental geology of southwestern Utah. Utah Geol Assoc Pub 21:39–51

    Google Scholar 

  • Pierce WG, Rich EI (1962) Summary of rock salt deposits in the United States as possible storage sites for radioactive waste materials. US Geol Surv Bull 1148:91

    Google Scholar 

  • Powers DW, Hassinger BW (1985) Synsedimentary dissolution pits in halite of the Permian Salado Formation, southeastern New Mexico. Jour Sed Pet 55:769–773

    Google Scholar 

  • Quinlan JF, Smith RA, Johnson KS (1987) Gypsum karst and salt karst of the United States of America. In: Atti symposio internationale sul carsismo nelle evaporiti (Proceedings, international symposium on karst in evaporites). Palermo, Italy, October 27–30, 1985: Le Grotte d’Italia, Ser 4, 13:73–92

  • Rahn PH, Davis AD (1996) Gypsum foundation problems in the Black Hills area, South Dakota. Environ and Eng Geosci 2:213–223

    Google Scholar 

  • Sando WJ (1988) Madison Limestone (Mississippian) paleokarst: a geologic synthesis. In: James NP, Choquette PW (eds) Paleokarst. Springer, Berlin Heidelberg New York, pp 256–277

    Google Scholar 

  • Sares SW, Wells SG (1987) Geomorphic and hydrogeologic development of the Gypsum Plain karst, Delaware basin, New Mexico. In: Powers DW, James WC (eds) Geology of the western Delaware basin, west Texas and southeastern New Mexico. El Paso Geol Soc Guide 18:98–117

    Google Scholar 

  • Saxby DB, Lamar JE (1957) Gypsum and anhydrite in Illinois. Illinois State Geol Surv Circ 226:26

    Google Scholar 

  • Simpkins WW, Gustavson TC, Alhades AB, Hoadley AD (1981) Impact of evaporite dissolution and collapse on highways and other cultural features in the Texas Panhandle and eastern New Mexico: Texas Bur Econ Geol Circ 81–4:23

  • Smith GI, Jones CL, Cuberttson WC, Ericksen GE, Dyni JR (1973) Evaporites and brines. In: Brobst DA, Pratt WD (eds) United States mineral resources. US Geol Surv Prof Paper 820:197–216

    Google Scholar 

  • Walker CW (1974) Nature and origin of cap rock overlying Gulf Coast salt domes. In: Coogan AH (ed) Fourth symposium on salt. Cleveland, Ohio, Northern Ohio Geol Soc, 1:169–195

  • Walters RF (1978) Land subsidence in central Kansas related to salt dissolution: Kansas Geol Surv Bul 214:82

    Google Scholar 

  • Walters RF (1991) Gorham oil field, Russell County, Kansas: Kansas Geol Surv Bull 228:111

    Google Scholar 

  • Warren JK, Havholm KG, Rosen MR, Parsley MJ (1990) Evolution of gypsum karst in the Kirschberg Evaporite Member near Fredericksburg, Texas. Jour Sed Pet 60:721–734

    Google Scholar 

  • White WB (1988) Geomorphology and hydrology of karst terrains. Oxford University Press, New York, p 464

    Google Scholar 

  • Withington CF (1962) Gypsum and anhydrite in the United States, exclusive of Alaska and Hawaii. US Geol Surv Min Invest Res Map MR-33

  • Withington CF, Jaster MC (1960) Selected annotated bibliography of gypsum and anhydrite in the United States and Puerto Rico. US Geol Surv Bull 1105:126

    Google Scholar 

  • Witkind IJ (1994) The role of salt in the structural development of central Utah. US Geol Surv Prof Paper 1528:145

    Google Scholar 

  • Witzke BJ, Bunker BJ, Rogers FS (1988) Eifelian through lower Frasnian stratigraphy and deposition in the Iowa area, central Midcontinent, U.S.A. In: McMillan NJ, Embry AF, Glass DJ (eds) Devonian of the world. Canadian Soc Petrol Geol 1:221–250

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Oklahoma Geological Survey, University of Oklahoma, 100 E. Boyd, Room N-131, Norman, OK, 73019, USA

    Kenneth S. Johnson

Authors
  1. Kenneth S. Johnson
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Kenneth S. Johnson.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Johnson, K.S. Subsidence hazards due to evaporite dissolution in the United States. Environ Geol 48, 395–409 (2005). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00254-005-1283-5

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00254-005-1283-5

Keywords

Search

Navigation