Abstract
Flow cytometry (FCM) is a tool for the analysis of single-cell properties in a cell suspension. In this contribution, we present an improved FCM method for the assessment of E-lysis in Enterobacteriaceae. The result of the E-lysis process is empty bacterial envelopes—called bacterial ghosts (BGs)—that constitute potential products in the pharmaceutical field. BGs have reduced light scattering properties when compared with intact cells. In combination with viability information obtained from staining samples with the membrane potential-sensitive fluorescent dye bis-(1,3-dibutylarbituric acid) trimethine oxonol (DiBAC4(3)), the presented method allows to differentiate between populations of viable cells, dead cells, and BGs. Using a second fluorescent dye RH414 as a membrane marker, non-cellular background was excluded from the data which greatly improved the quality of the results. Using true volumetric absolute counting, the FCM data correlated well with cell count data obtained from colony-forming units (CFU) for viable populations. Applicability of the method to several Enterobacteriaceae (different Escherichia coli strains, Salmonella typhimurium, Shigella flexneri 2a) could be shown. The method was validated as a resilient process analytical technology (PAT) tool for the assessment of E-lysis and for particle counting during 20-l batch processes for the production of Escherichia coli Nissle 1917 BGs.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Barrell BG, Air GM, Hutchison 3rd CA (1976) Overlapping genes in bacteriophage phiX174. Nature 264:34–41. doi:10.1038/264034a0
Bläsi U, Geisen R, Lubitz W, Henrich B, Plapp R (1983) Localisation of the bacteriophage phiX174 lysis gene product in the cell envelope of Escherichia coli. In: Hakenbeck R, Höltje JV, Labischinski H (eds) The target of penicillin. de Gruyter, Berlin & New York, pp. 205–210
Bläsi U, Linke RP, Lubitz W (1989) Evidence for membrane-bound oligomerization of bacteriophage phiX174 lysis protein-E. J Biol Chem 264:4552–4558
Boye E, Steen HB, Skarstad K (1983) Flow cytometry of bacteria: a promising tool in experimental and clinical microbiology. J Gen Microbiol 129:973–980. doi:10.1099/00221287-129-4-973
Broger T, Odermatt RP, Huber P, Sonnleitner B (2011) Real-time on-line flow cytometry for bioprocess monitoring. J Biotechnol 154:240–247. doi:10.1016/j.jbiotec.2011.05.003
Deere D, Porter J, Edwards C, Pickup R (1995) Evaluation of the suitability of bis-(1,3-dibutylbarbituric acid) trimethine oxonol, (diBA-C4(3)−), for the flow cytometric assessment of bacterial viability. FEMS Microbiol Lett 130:165–169. doi:10.1111/j.1574-6968.1995.tb07714.x
DeLisa MP, Li J, Rao G, Weigand WA, Bentley WE (1999) Monitoring GFP-operon fusion protein expression during high cell density cultivation of Escherichia coli using an on-line optical sensor. Biotechnol Bioeng 65:54–64. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1097-0290(19991005)65:1<54::AID-BIT7>;3.0.CO;2-R
FDA (2004) Guidance for Industry. PAT—a framework for innovative pharmaceutical development, manufacturing and quality assurance. Department of Health and Human Services - Food and Drug Administration. http://www.fda.gov/downloads/Drugs/Guidances/ucm070305.pdf (accessed 04/23/2014).
Haidinger W, Szostak MP, Beisker W, Lubitz W (2001) Green fluorescent protein (GFP)-dependent separation of bacterial ghosts from intact cells by FACS. Cytometry 44:106–112. doi:10.1002/1097-0320(20010601)44:2<106::AID-CYTO1088>3.0.CO;2-5
Haidinger W, Szostak MP, Jechlinger W, Lubitz W (2003) Online monitoring of Escherichia coli ghost production. Appl Environ Microbiol 69:468–474. doi:10.1128/AEM.69.1.468-474.2003
Halfmann G, Leduc M, Lubitz W (1984) Different sensitivity of autolytic deficient Escherichia coli mutants to the mode of induction. FEMS Microbiol Lett 24:205–208. doi:10.1111/j.1574-6968.1984.tb01305.x
Henrich B, Lubitz W, Plapp R (1982) Lysis of Escherichia coli by induction of cloned phiX174 genes. Mol Gen Genet 185:493–497. doi:10.1007/BF00334146
Hernlem B, Hua SS (2010) Dual fluorochrome flow cytometric assessment of yeast viability. Curr Microbiol 61:57–63. doi:10.1007/s00284-009-9576-7
Herrero M, Quirós C, García LA, Díaz M (2006) Use of flow cytometry to follow the physiological states of microorganisms in cider fermentation processes. Appl Environ Microbiol 72:6725–6733. doi:10.1128/aem.01183-06
Hewitt CJ, Nebe-Von Caron G, Axelsson B, McFarlane CM, Nienow AW (2000) Studies related to the scale-up of high-cell-density E. coli fed-batch fermentations using multiparameter flow cytometry: effect of a changing microenvironment with respect to glucose and dissolved oxygen concentration. Biotechnol Bioeng 70:381–390. doi:10.1002/1097-0290(20001120)70:4<381::aid-bit3>3.0.co;2-0
Hewitt CJ, Nebe-Von Caron G, Nienow AW, McFarlane CM (1999) Use of multi-staining flow cytometry to characterise the physiological state of Escherichia coli W3110 in high cell density fed-batch cultures. Biotechnol Bioeng 63:705–711. doi:10.1002/(sici)1097-0290(19990620)63:6<705::aid-bit8>3.0.co;2-m
Hjelm A, Soderstrom B, Vikstrom D, Jong WS, Luirink J, de Gier JW (2015) Autotransporter-based antigen display in bacterial ghosts. Appl Environ Microbiol 81:726–735. doi:10.1128/AEM.02733-14
Hyka P, Züllig T, Ruth C, Looser V, Meier C, Klein J, Melzoch K, Meyer H-P, Glieder A, Kovar K (2010) Combined use of fluorescent dyes and flow cytometry to quantify the physiological state of Pichia pastoris during the production of heterologous proteins in high-cell-density fed-batch cultures. Appl Environ Microbiol 76:4486–4496. doi:10.1128/aem.02475-09
Jechlinger W, Szostak MP, Witte A, Lubitz W (1999) Altered temperature induction sensitivity of the lambda pR/cI857 system for controlled gene E expression in Escherichia coli. FEMS Microbiol Lett 173:347–352. doi:10.1111/j.1574-6968.1999.tb13524.x
Jepras RI, Carter J, Pearson SC, Paul FE, Wilkinson MJ (1995) Development of a robust flow cytometric assay for determining numbers of viable bacteria. Appl Environ Microbiol 61:2696–2701
Kudela P, Koller VJ, Lubitz W (2010) Bacterial ghosts (BGs)—advanced antigen and drug delivery system. Vaccine 28:5760–5767. doi:10.1016/j.vaccine.2010.06.087
Langemann T, Koller VJ, Muhammad A, Kudela P, Mayr UB, Lubitz W (2010) The bacterial ghost platform system: production and applications. Bioeng Bugs 1:326–336. doi:10.4161/bbug.1.5.12540
Lewis G, Taylor IW, Nienow AW, Hewitt CJ (2004) The application of multi-parameter flow cytometry to the study of recombinant Escherichia coli batch fermentation processes. J Ind Microbiol Biotechnol 31:311–322. doi:10.1007/s10295-004-0151-8
Lubitz P, Mayr UB, Lubitz W (2009) Applications of bacterial ghosts in biomedicine. In: Guzmán CA, Feuerstein GZ (eds) Pharmaceutical biotechnology. Landes Bioscience, Austin, pp. 159–170
Markert A, Zillig W (1965) Studies on the lysis of Escherichia coli C by bacteriophage PhiX174. Virology 25:88–97. doi:10.1016/0042-6822(65)90256-4
Mayr UB, Haller C, Haidinger W, Atrasheuskaya A, Bukin E, Lubitz W, Ignatyev G (2005a) Bacterial ghosts as an oral vaccine: a single dose of Escherichia coli O157:H7 bacterial ghosts protects mice against lethal challenge. Infect Immun 73:4810–4817. doi:10.1128/IAI.73.8.4810-4817.2005
Mayr UB, Koller VJ, Lubitz P, Lubitz W (2008) Bacterial ghosts as vaccine and drug delivery platforms. In: Sleator R, Hill C (eds) Patho-biotechnology. Landes Bioscience, Austin, Texas, pp. 50–59
Mayr UB, Walcher P, Azimpour C, Riedmann E, Haller C, Lubitz W (2005b) Bacterial ghosts as antigen delivery vehicles. Adv Drug Deliv Rev 57:1381–1391. doi:10.1016/j.addr.2005.01.027
Medwid RD, Krebs L, Welch S (2007) Evaluation of Escherichia coli cell disruption and inclusion body release using nucleic acid binding fluorochromes and flow cytometry. Biotechniques 43:777–782. doi:10.2144/000112621
Nebe-von-Caron G, Stephens PJ, Hewitt CJ, Powell JR, Badley RA (2000) Analysis of bacterial function by multi-colour fluorescence flow cytometry and single cell sorting. J Microbiol Methods 42:97–114. doi:10.1016/S0167-7012(00)00181-0
Novo D, Perlmutter NG, Hunt RH, Shapiro HM (1999) Accurate flow cytometric membrane potential measurement in bacteria using diethyloxacarbocyanine and a ratiometric technique. Cytometry 35:55–63. doi:10.1002/(sici)1097-0320(19990101)35:1<55::aid-cyto8>3.0.co;2-2
Paukner S, Stiedl T, Kudela P, Bizik J, Al Laham F, Lubitz W (2006) Bacterial ghosts as a novel advanced targeting system for drug and DNA delivery. Expert Opin Drug Deliv 3:11–22. doi:10.1517/17425247.3.1.11
Perrin P, Morgeaux S (1995) Inactivation of DNA by beta-propiolactone. Biologicals 23:207–211. doi:10.1006/biol.1995.0034
Rahman M (2006) Introduction to flow cytometry. Serotec Ltd. http://www.abdserotec.com/uploads/flow-cytometry.pdf (accessed: 04/23/2015).
Rathore AS, Bhambure R, Ghare V (2010) Process analytical technology (PAT) for biopharmaceutical products. Anal Bioanal Chem 398:137–154. doi:10.1007/s00216-010-3781-x
Read EK, Park JT, Shah RB, Riley BS, Brorson KA, Rathore AS (2010a) Process analytical technology (PAT) for biopharmaceutical products: part I. Concepts and applications. Biotechnol Bioeng 105:276–284. doi:10.1002/bit.22528
Read EK, Shah RB, Riley BS, Park JT, Brorson KA, Rathore AS (2010b) Process analytical technology (PAT) for biopharmaceutical products: part II. Concepts and applications. Biotechnol Bioeng 105:285–295. doi:10.1002/bit.22529
Riedmann EM, Kyd JM, Cripps AW, Lubitz W (2007) Bacterial ghosts as adjuvant particles. Expert Rev Vaccines 6:241–253. doi:10.1586/14760584.6.2.241
Sagmeister P, Wechselberger P, Jazini M, Meitz A, Langemann T, Herwig C (2013) Soft sensor assisted dynamic bioprocess control: efficient tools for bioprocess development. Chem Eng Sci 96:190–198. doi:10.1016/j.ces.2013.02.069
Shapiro HM (2000) Membrane potential estimation by flow cytometry. Methods 21:271–279. doi:10.1006/meth.2000.1007
Shapiro HM (2003) Practical flow cytometry, 4th edn. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, NJ
Ündey C, Ertunç S, Çınar A (2003) Online batch/fed-batch process performance monitoring, quality prediction, and variable-contribution analysis for diagnosis. Ind Eng Chem 42:4645–4658. doi:10.1021/ie0208218
Walcher P, Mayr UB, Azimpour-Tabrizi C, Eko FO, Jechlinger W, Mayrhofer P, Alefantis T, Mujer CV, DelVecchio VG, Lubitz W (2004) Antigen discovery and delivery of subunit vaccines by nonliving bacterial ghost vectors. Expert Rev Vaccines 3:681–691. doi:10.1586/14760584.3.6.681
Wechselberger P, Sagmeister P, Herwig C (2013) Real-time estimation of biomass and specific growth rate in physiologically variable recombinant fed-batch processes. Bioprocess Biosyst Eng 36:1205–1218. doi:10.1007/s00449-012-0848-4
Witte A, Brand E, Schrot G, Lubitz W (1993) Pathway of phiX174 protein E mediated lysis of Escherichia coli. In: de Pedro MA, Höltje JV, Löffelhardt W (eds) Bacterial growth and lysis. Plenum Press, New York, pp. 277–283
Witte A, Lubitz W (1989) Biochemical characterization of phiX174-protein-E-mediated lysis of Escherichia coli. Eur J Biochem 180:393–398. doi:10.1111/j.1432-1033.1989.tb14661.x
Witte A, Wanner G, Blasi U, Halfmann G, Szostak M, Lubitz W (1990) Endogenous transmembrane tunnel formation mediated by phiX174 lysis protein E. J Bacteriol 172:4109–4114
Witte A, Wanner G, Sulzner M, Lubitz W (1992) Dynamics of PhiX174 protein E-mediated lysis of Escherichia coli. Arch Microbiol 157:381–388. doi:10.1007/BF00248685
Zhang H, Lennox B (2004) Integrated condition monitoring and control of fed-batch fermentation processes. J Process Contr 14:41–50. doi:10.1016/S0959-1524(03)00044-1
Zhao R, Natarajan A, Srienc F (1999) A flow injection flow cytometry system for on-line monitoring of bioreactors. Biotechnol Bioeng 62:609–617. doi:10.1002/(sici)1097-0290(19990305)62:5<609::aid-bit13>3.0.co;2-c
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to thank the companies BIRD-C GmbH & CoKG (Vienna, Austria) and Ardeypharm GmbH (Herdecke, Germany) for providing the strains and plasmids used in this work. All work presented here was initiated and partly financed by BIRD-C. Additional funding was received through the Austrian COMET Program by the Austrian Federal Ministry of Transport, Innovation and Technology (BMVIT); the Austrian Federal Ministry of Economy, Family and Youth (BMWFJ); and by the State of Styria (Styrian Funding Agency SFG).
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Funding
This study was funded through the Austrian COMET Program by the Austrian Federal Ministry of Transport, Innovation and Technology (BMVIT); the Austrian Federal Ministry of Economy, Family and Youth (BMWFJ); and by the State of Styria (Styrian Funding Agency SFG).
Conflict of interest
The authors declare that they have no competing interests.
Ethical approval
This article does not contain any studies with human participants or animals performed by any of the authors.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Langemann, T., Mayr, U.B., Meitz, A. et al. Multi-parameter flow cytometry as a process analytical technology (PAT) approach for the assessment of bacterial ghost production. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 100, 409–418 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00253-015-7089-9
Received:
Revised:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00253-015-7089-9