Abstract
Urological surgery evolved from the ancient practice of removing primary bladder stones from young boys. Bladder stones, once ubiquitous, long ago disappeared from the developed world while pockets of disease still exist in developing countries. Two epidemiological studies identified as precipitating events of bladder stone formation the practice of substitutive carbohydrate feedings to newborns. In Southeast Asia, masticated rice is fed to newborns in stone-endemic villages while in England, during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries pap or panada was used to hand-feed infants when breast milk was not available. Fresh milk from dairy animals was deemed preferable to pap. Lack of access to dairy cattle enhanced need for hand-feeding. In an epidemiological study, during mid-nineteenth century in England the prevalence of dairy cattle was inversely related to the prevalence of bladder stones. These epidemiological data relate stone formation to nutrition during the first few days or weeks of life. It is surmised that frequent use of or exclusive reliance on carbohydrate foods replacing milk feedings leads to a relative dietary deficiency in phosphates and the formation of insoluble urinary salts. Girls, with short, nontortuous urethras may pass much of the calculus debris without retaining nuclei in the bladder. In some males, stone nuclei are formed and retained. The growth of stones is determined thereafter by the net effect of depository and resorptive mechanisms operating over time distributing over many years the age that patients present for surgical stone removal. The role of early introduction of carbohydrate foods and reduced milk intake of neonates has not been incorporated into recommendations for feeding newborns in endemic countries nor comprehensively modeled in animals.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Joly JS (1929) Stone and calculus disease of the urinary organs. Mosby, St. Louis
Chadwick J, Mann WN (1950) The medical works of Hippocrates. Backwell Scientific Publications, Oxford
Celsus AC (1935) De medicina (trans: Spencer WG). Harvard University Press, Cambridge
Andersen DA (1972) History of bladder stone disease. In: Van Reen R (ed) Proceedings WHO regional symposium on vesical calculus disease, Bangkok, Thailand, U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare, Publish Health Service, National Institutes of Health, pp 1–16
Lonsdale K (1968) Human stones. Science 159(3820):1199–1207
Yelloly J (1829) Remarks on the tendency to calculus diseases; with observations on the nature of urinary concretions and an analysis of a large part of the collection belonging to the Norfolk and Norwich Hospital. Phil Trans R Soc 119:55–81
Cadge W (1874) Address in surgery. Br Med J ii:201–212
Padua RG (1919) Cystolithiasis among Filipinos in association with dietetic deficiency Phil J. Science 14:481–498
Thomson JO (1921) Urinary calculus at the Canton Hospital, Canton, China. Surg Gynecol Obstet 32:491–501
Sayasone S, Odermatt P, Khammanivong K, Phomluangsyl S, Vinhl CV, Thin HM, Strobeli M (2004) Bladder stones in childhood: a descriptive study in a rural setting in Saravan Province, Lao PDR. Southeast Asian J Trop Med Public Health 35(Suppl 2):50–52
Passmore R (1953) Observations on the epidemiology of stone in the bladder in Thailand. Lancet 1(6761):638–640
Unakul S (1961) Urinary stones in Thailand, a statistical survey. Siriraj Hosp Gazette 13:199–214
Aegukkatajit S (1999) Reduction of urinary stone in children from north-eastern Thailand. J Med Assoc Thai 82(12):1230–1233
Survey N (1963) Nutriton survey, 1963. Union of Burma. U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington
Tan RE (1964) Some observations on the etiology of bladder stones in Indonesia. Acta Urol Belg 32:491–501
McCarrison R (1931) A lecture on the causation of stone in India. Br Med J i:1009–1015
Andersen DA (1962) The nutritional significance of primary bladder stones. Br J Urol 34:160–177
Aurora AL, Ramalingaswami V, Gaitonde PD (1964) Bladder stone disease in children in Delhi area. J Urol 91:347–353
Aurora AL, Taneja OP, Gupta DN (1970) Bladder stone disease of childhood. I. An epidemiological study. Acta Paediatr Scand 59(2):177–184
Rizvi SA, Naqvi SA, Hussain Z, Hashmi A, Hussain M, Zafar MN, Sultan S, Mehdi H (2003) Management of pediatric urolithiasis in Pakistan: experience with 1440 children. J Urol 169(2):634–637. doi:10.1097/01.ju.0000041402.50707.c0
Lal B, Paryani JP, Memon SU (2015) Childhood bladder stones-an endemic disease of developing countries. J Ayub Med Coll Abbottabad 27(1):17–21
Salah MA, Holman E, Khan AM, Toth C (2005) Percutaneous cystolithotomy for pediatric endemic bladder stone: experience with 155 cases from 2 developing countries. J Pediatr Surg 40(10):1628–1631. doi:10.1016/j.jpedsurg.2005.06.039
Brisson P, Woll M, Parker D, Durbin R (2012) Bladder stones in Afghan children. Mil Med 177(11):1403–1405
Srivastava RN, Hussainy MA, Goel RG, Rose GA (1986) Bladder stone disease in children in Afghanistan. Br J Urol 58(4):374–377
Loutfi AH, Haamid GA, Francis M, Salam IA (1972) Study of urinary tract calculi in Egyptian children. J Egypt Med Assoc 55:805–812
Nahlovsky J, Farhat M, Gharbi S (1969) Extraordinary incidence of lithiasis in children in Tunisia and their probable causes. J Urol Nephrol (Paris) 75(12):Suppl 12:539+
Guersel AE (1936) Une etude sur les lithiasis urinaires en Turque. J Urol 42:447–466
Eckstein HB (1961) Endemic urinary lithiasis in Turkish children. Arch Dis Childhood 36:137–145
Brown RK, Brown EC (1941) Urinary stones: a study of their etiology in small children in Syria. Surgery 9:415–424
Gharib R (1970) Lithiasis in the urinary tract of children. General review based on observations in 167 affected Iranian children. Clin Pediatr (Phila) 9(3):157–164
Sadre M, Bastanfar M, Ziai M (1973) Urinary calculi in Iran: hospital experience over a 3 year period with special reference to bladder stones in children. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 67(3):374–378
Lonsdale K, Mason P (1966) Uric acid, uric acid dihydrate, and urates in urinary calculi, ancient and modern. Science 152(3728):1511–1512
Sutor DJ, Wooley SE (1969) Composition of urinary calculi by X-ray diffraction: collected data from various localities. Br J Urol 41(4):397–400
Sutor DJ, Wooley SE, MacKenzie KR, Wilson R, Scott R, Morgan HG (1971) Urinary tract calculi–a comparison of chemical and crystallographic analyses. Br J Urol 43(2):149–153
Chutikorn C, Valyasevi A, Halstead SB (1967) Studies of bladder stone disease in Thailand. II. Hospital experience. Urolithiasis at Ubol Provincial Hospital, 1956–1962. Am J Clin Nutr 20:1320–1328
Halstead SB, Valyasevi A (1967) Studies of bladder stone disease in Thailand. I. Introduction and description of area studied. Am J Clin Nutr 20:1312–1319
Halstead SB, Valyasevi A (1967) Studies of bladder stone disease in Thailand. III. Epidemiologic studies in Ubol Province. Am J Clin Nutr 20:1329–1339
Valyasevi A, Halstead SB, Pantuwatana S, Tankayul C (1967) Studies of bladder stone disease in Thailand. IV. Dietary habits, nutritional intake, and infant feeding practices among residents of a hypo- and hyperendemic area. Am J Clin Nutr 20:1340–1351
Valyasevi A, Halstead SB, Dhanamitta S (1967) Studies of bladder stone disease in Thailand. VI. Urinary studies in children, 2–10 years old, resident in a hypo- and hyperendemic area. Am J Clin Nutr 20:1362–1368
Halstead SB, Valyasevi A, Umpaivit P (1967) Studies of bladder stone disease in Thailand. V. Dietary habits and disease prevalence. Am J Clin Nutr 20:1352–1361
Valyasevi A, Dhanamitta S, Van Reen R (1969) Studies of bladder stone disease in Thailand. X. Effect of orthophosphate and nonfat dry milk supplementations on urine composition. Am J Clin Nutr 22(2):218–227
Dhanamitta S, Valyasevi A, Van Reen R (1967) Studies of bladder stone disease in Thailand. IX. Effect of orthophosphate and fat-free powdered milk supplementations on the occurrence of crystalluria. Am J Clin Nutr 20(12):1387–1391
Dhanamitta S, Valyasevi A, Van Reen R (1970) Studies of bladder stone disease in Thailand. XI. Effect of 4-hydroxy-l-proline and orthophosphate supplementations on crystalluria. Am J Clin Nutr 23(3):371–376
Robertson WG, Peacock M (1972) Calcium oxalate crystalluria and inhibitors of crystallization in recurrent renal stone-formers. Clin Sci 43(4):499–506
Robertson WG, Peacock M, Marshall RW, Marshall DH, Nordin BE (1976) Saturation-inhibition index as a measure of the risk of calcium oxalate stone formation in the urinary tract. N Engl J Med 294(5):249–252. doi:10.1056/nejm197601292940504
Robertson WG (1977) Saturation-inhibition index as a measure of the risk of calcium oxalate stone formation. In: Van Reen R (ed) Idiopathic bladder stone disease. US Government Printing Office, Washington, pp 55–71
Valyasevi A, Dhanamitta S, Watthana-Kasetr S, Van Reen R (1977) Prevention of bladder stone disease: preliminary results. In: Van Reen R (ed) Idiopathic urinary bladder stone disease. US Government Printing Office, Washington, pp 345–362
Valyasevi A, Dhanamitta S (1977) A general hypothesis concerning the etiological factors in bladder stone disease. In: Reen RV (ed) Idiopathic urinary bladders stone disease. U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, pp 135–150
England W (1830) Observations on the functional disorders of the kidneys which give rise to the formation of urinary calculi: with remarks on their frequency in the county of Norfolk. Underwood, London
Abt IA (1965) History of pediatrics. Saunders, Philadelphia
Grandmother A (1823) Bring up children without human milk. In: Anonymous (ed) Advice to young mothers on the physical education of children. Longman, Hurst, Rees, Orme and Brown, London, pp 84–90
Cheadle WB (1896) On the principles and exact conditions to be observed in the artificial feeding of infants: the properties of artificial foods and the diseases which arise from faults of diet in early life. Smith, Elder and Co, London
Agriculture Mo (1866) Returns relating to livestock in the United Kingdom. George Edward Eyre & William Spottiswoode, London
Loutfi A, Van Reen R, Abdel-Hamid G (1974) Studies on bladder stone disease in Egyptian children. II. Methodology and general aspects of the disease. J Egypt Med Assoc 57(3–4):96–108
Loutfi A, Van Reen R, Abdel-Hamid G (1974) Studies on bladder stone disease in Egyptian children. V. Composition of bladder stones. J Egypt Med Assoc 57(3–4):124–136
Loutfi A, Mansour N, Van Reen R (1974) Studies on bladder stone disease in Egyptian children. III. Negative role of Bilharziasis in pathogenesis. J Egypt Med Assoc 57(3–4):109–115
Loutfi A, Waslien C, Van Reen R (1974) Studies on bladder stone disease in Egyptian children. IV. Evaluation of vitamin A status. J Egypt Med Assoc 57(3–4):116–123
Osborne TB, Mendel LB, Ferry EB (1917) The incidence of phosphate urinary calculi in rats fed on experimental rations. JAMA 69:23–33
van Leersum EC (1927) Vitamin A deficiency and urolithiasis. Br Med J 2(3488):873–874
Gershoff SN, McGandy RB (1981) The effects of vitamin A-deficient diets containing lactose in producing bladder calculi and tumors in rats. Am J Clin Nutr 34(4):483–489
Hammarsten G (1937) Eine experimentelle studie uber calcium oxalat als steinbildner in dem harwegen: speciell mit rachsicht auf die bedentung des magnesiums. Lunds Universitats Arrskrit NF 32:12
Schneider H, Steenbock H (1940) Calcium citrate uroliths on a low phosphorus diet. J Urol 43:339
Coburn SP, Packett LV Jr (1962) Calcium, phosphorus and citrate interactions in oxalate urolithiasis produced with a low-phosphorus diet in rats. J Nutr 76:385–392
Gershoff SN, Faragalla FF, Nelson DA, Andrus SB (1959) Vitamin B6 deficiency and oxalate nephrocalcinosis in the cat. Am J Med 27:72–80
Gershoff SN (1970) Production of urinary calculi in vitamin B6-deficient male, female and castrated male rats. J Nutr 100(1):117–122
Takasaki E (1969) The urinary excretion of oxalic acid in vitamin B1 deficient rats. Invest Urol 7(2):150–153
Van Reen R, Lyon HW, Losee FL (1959) Urolithiasis in the rat. I. The influence of diet on the formation and prevention of calcium citrate calculi. J Nutr 69:392–396
Van Reen R (1962) Urolithiasis in the rat. III. Effects of proteins, carbohydrate and phosphate on the occurence of calcium citrate stones. J Nutr 77:137–141
Halstead SB (1981) Cause of primary bladder stone in England—a retrospective epidemiological study. In: Smith LH, Robertson WG, Finlayson B (eds) Urolithiasis clinical and basic research. Plenum Press, New York and London, pp 325–328
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Human and animal rights
This article does not contain any studies with human participants or animals performed by any of the authors. The information presented was developed using authors own financial resources.
Conflict of interest
There is no conflict of interest to declare.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Halstead, S.B. Epidemiology of bladder stone of children: precipitating events. Urolithiasis 44, 101–108 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00240-015-0835-8
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00240-015-0835-8