Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Reflection impulsivity in adolescent cannabis users: a comparison with alcohol-using and non-substance-using adolescents

  • Original Investigation
  • Published:
Psychopharmacology Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Rationale

Reflection impulsivity—a failure to gather and evaluate information before making a decision—is a critical component of risk-taking and substance use behaviours, which are highly prevalent during adolescence.

Objectives and methods

The Information Sampling Test was used to assess reflection impulsivity in 175 adolescents (mean age 18.3, range 16.5–20; 55% female)—48 cannabis users (2.3 years use, 10.8 days/month), 65 alcohol users, and 62 non-substance-using controls—recruited from a longitudinal cohort and from the general community and matched for education and IQ. Cannabis and alcohol users were matched on levels of alcohol consumption.

Results

Cannabis users sampled to the lowest degree of certainty before making a decision on the task. Group differences remained significant after controlling for relevant substance use and clinical confounds (e.g., anxiety, depressive symptoms, alcohol, and ecstasy use). Poor performance on multiple IST indices was associated with an earlier age of onset of regular cannabis use and greater duration of exposure to cannabis, after controlling for recent use. Alcohol users did not differ from controls on any IST measure.

Conclusions

Exposure to cannabis during adolescence is associated with increased risky and impulsive decision making, with users adopting strategies with higher levels of uncertainty and inefficient utilisation of information. The young cannabis users did show sensitivity to losses, suggesting that greater impulsivity early in their drug using career is more evident when there is a lack of negative consequences. This provides a window of opportunity for intervention before the onset of cannabis dependence.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Fig. 1

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Allen JP, Litten RZ, Fertig JB, Babor T (1997) A review of research on the Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test (AUDIT). Alcohol Clin Exp Res 21:613–619

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Balazsa T, Birio J, Gullai N, Ledent C, Sperlagh B (2008) CB1-cannabinoid receptors are involved in the modulation of non-synaptic [H-3] serotonin release from the rat hippocampus. Neurochem Internat 52:95–102

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bambico FR, Nguyen N-T, Katz N, Gobbi G (2010) Chronic exposure to cannabinoids during adolescence but not during adulthood impairs emotional behaviour and monoaminergic neurotransmission. Neurobiol Dis 37:641–655

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Battisti RA, Roodenrys S, Johnstone S, Pesa N, Hermens D, Solowij N (2010) Chronic cannabis users show altered neurophysiological functioning on Stroop task conflict resolution. Psychopharmacology 212:613–624

    Google Scholar 

  • Bechara A, Damasio AR, Damasio H, Anderson SW (1994) Insensitivity to future consequences following damage to human prefrontal cortex. Cognition 50:7–15

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Beck AT, Steer RA, Brown GK (1996) Manual for the Beck Depression Inventory-II. Psychological Corporation, San Antonio

    Google Scholar 

  • Best AR, Regehr WG (2008) Serotonin evokes endocannabinoid release and retrogradely suppresses excitatory synapses. J Neurosci 28:6508–6515

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bolla KI, Brown K, Eldreth D, Tate K, Cadet JL (2002) Dose-related neurocognitive effects of marijuana use. Neurology 59:1337–1343

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bolla KI, Eldreth DA, Matochik JA, Cadet JL (2005) Neural substrates of faulty decision-making in abstinent marijuana users. Neuroimage 26:480–492

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Budney AJ, Novy P, Hughes JR (1999) Marijuana withdrawal among adults seeking treatment for marijuana dependence. Addiction 94:1311–1322

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cha YM, White AM, Kuhn CM, Wilson WA, Swartzwelder HS (2006) Differential effects of delta9-THC on learning in adolescent and adult rats. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 83:448–455

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Chun TH, Spirito A, Hernandez L, Fairlie AM, Sindelar-Manning H, Eaton CA et al (2010) The significance of marijuana use among alcohol-using adolescent emergency department patients. Acad Emerg Med 17:63–71

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Clark L, Cools R, Robbins TW (2004) The neuropsychology of ventral prefrontal cortex: decision-making and reversal learning. Brain Cogn 55:41–53

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Clark L, Robbins RW, Ersche KD, Sahakian BJ (2006) Reflection-impulsivity in current and former substance users. Biol Psychiatry 60:515–522

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Clark L, Rosier JP, Robbins TW, Sahakian BJ (2009) Disrupted ‘reflection’ impulsivity in cannabis users but not current or former ecstasy users. J Psychopharm 23:14–22

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Copeland J, Swift W (2009) Cannabis use disorder: epidemiology and management. Int Rev Psychiatry 21:96–103

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dickman SJ (1993) Impulsivity and information processing. In: McCown W, Shure M, Johnson J (eds) The impulsive client, theory, research and treatment. American Psychological Association, Washington

    Google Scholar 

  • Ehrenreich H, Rinn T, Kunert HJ, Moeller MR, Poser W, Schilling L, Gigerenzer G, Hoehe MR (1999) Specific attentional dysfunction in adults following early start of cannabis use. Psychopharmacology 142:295–301

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Eldreth DA, Matochik JA, Cadet JL, Bolla KI (2004) Abnormal brain activity in prefrontal regions in abstinent marijuana users. Neuroimage 23:914–920

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ernst M, Paulus MP (2005) Neurobiology of decision making: a selective review from a neurocognitive and clinical perspective. Biol Psychiatry 58:597–604

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Evenden J (1999a) Impulsivity: a discussion of clinical and experimental findings. J Psychopharm 13:180–192

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Evenden JL (1999b) Varieties of impulsivity. Psychopharmacology 146:348–361

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Fridberg DJ, Queller S, Ahn WY, Kim W, Bishara AJ, Busemeyer JR et al (2010) Cognitive mechanisms underlying risky decision making in chronic cannabis users. J Math Psychol 54:28–38

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Garavan H, Stout JC (2005) Neurocognitive insights into substance abuse. Tr Cogn Sci 9:195–201

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Goldstein RZ, Volkow ND (2002) Drug addiction and its underlying neurobiological basis: neuroimaging evidence for the involvement of the frontal cortex. Am J Psychiatry 159:1642–1652

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gruber S, Yurgelun-Todd D (2005) Neuroimaging of marijuana smokers during inhibitory processing: a pilot investigation. Brain Res Cogn Brain Res 23:107–118

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Harvey MA, Sellman JD, Porter RJ, Frampton CM (2007) The relationship between non-acute adolescent cannabis use and cognition. Drug Alcohol Rev 26:309–319

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Heaven P, Ciarrochi J (2008) Parental styles, gender and the development of hope and self-esteem. Eur J Pers 22:707–724

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hermann D, Lemenager T, Gelbke J, Welzel H, Skopp G, Mann K (2009) Decision making of heavy cannabis users on the Iowa Gambling Task: stronger association with THC of hair analysis than with personality traits of the Tridimensional Personality Questionnaire. Eur Addict Res 15:94–98

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hester R, Nestor L, Garavan H (2009) Impaired error awareness and anterior cingulate cortex hypoactivity in chronic cannabis users. Neuropsychopharmacology 34:2450–2458

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Huestegge L, Radach R, Kunert HJ, Heller D (2002) Visual search in long-term cannabis users with early age of onset. Prog Brain Res 140:377–394

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Huestis MA, Cone EJ (2004) Relationship of Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol concentrations in oral fluid and plasma after controlled administration of smoked cannabis. J Anal Toxicol 28:394–399

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ilan AB, Smith ME, Gevin A (2004) Effects of marijuana on neurophysiological signals of working and episodic memory. Psychopharmacology 176:214–222

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jacobsen LK, Mencl WE, Westerveld M, Pugh KR (2004) Impact of cannabis use on brain function in adolescents. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1021:384–390

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jacobsen LK, Pugh KR, Constable RT, Westerveld M, Mencl WE (2007) Functional correlates of verbal memory deficits emerging during nicotine withdrawal in abstinent adolescent cannabis users. Biol Psychiatry 61:31–40

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jacobus J, Bava S, Cohen-Zion M, Mahmood O, Tapert SF (2009) Functional consequences of marijuana use in adolescents. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 92:559–565

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jager G, Kahn RS, Brink W, Ree JM, Ramsey NF (2006) Long-term effects of frequent cannabis use on working memory and attention: an fMRI study. Psychopharmacology 185:358–368

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jentsch JD, Taylor JR (1999) Impulsivity resulting from frontostriatal dysfunction in drug abuse: implications for the control of behavior by reward-related stimuli. Psychopharmacology 146:373–390

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kagan J (1965) Reflection impulsivity and reading ability in primary grade children. Child Develop 36:609–628

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kagan J (1966) Reflection impulsivity: the generality and dynamics of conceptual tempo. J Abnorm Psychol 71:17–24

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kanayama G, Rogowska J, Pope HG, Gruber SA, Yurgelun-Todd DA (2004) Spatial working memory in heavy cannabis users: a functional magnetic resonance imaging study. Psychopharmacology 176:239–247

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kelaï S, Hanoun N, Aufrère G, Beaugé F, Hamon M, Lanfumey L (2006) Cannabinoid–serotonin interactions in alcohol-preferring vs. alcohol-avoiding mice. J Neurochem 99:308–320

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kempel P, Lampe K, Parnefjord R, Hennig J, Kunert HJ (2003) Auditory-evoked potentials and selective attention: different ways to information processing in cannabis users and controls. Neuropsychobiology 48:95–101

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kessler RC, Andrews G, Colpe LJ, Hiripi E, Mroczek DK, Normand SLT et al (2002) Short screening scales to monitor population prevalences and trends in non-specific psychological distress. Psychol Med 32:959–976

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kimura T, Ohta T, Watanabe K, Yoshimura H, Yamamoto I (1998) Anandamide, an endogenous cannabinoid receptor ligand, also interacts with 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT) receptor. Biol Pharm Bull 21:224–226

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Krain AL, Wilson AM, Arbuckle R, Castellanos FX, Milham MP (2006) Distinct neural mechanisms of risk and ambiguity: a meta-analysis of decision-making. Neuroimage 32:477–484

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lamers CTJ, Bechara A, Rizzo M, Ramaekers JG (2006) Cognitive function and mood in MDMA/THC users, THC users and non-drug using controls. J Psychopharm 20:302–311

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lau T, Schloss P (2008) The cannabinoid CB1 receptor is expressed on serotonergic and dopaminergic neurons. Eur J Pharmacol 578:137–141

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lorenzetti V, Lubman DI, Whittle S, Solowij N, Yücel M (2010) Structural MRI findings in long-term cannabis users: what do we know? Subst Use Misuse 45:1787–1808

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lubman DI, Yücel M, Hall W (2007) Substance use and the adolescent brain: a toxic combination? J Psychopharmacol 21:792–794

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Marin RS, Biedrzycki RC, Firinciogullari S (1991) Reliability and validity of the Apathy Evaluation Scale. Psychiatry Res 38:143–162

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mato S, Aso E, Castro E, Martin M, Valverde O, Maldonado R, Pazos A (2007) CB1 knockout mice display impaired functionality of 5-HT1A and 5-HT2A/C receptors. J Neurochem 103:2111–2120

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Medina KL, Schweinsburg AD, Cohen-Zion M, Nagel BJ, Tapert SF (2007) Effects of alcohol and combined marijuana and alcohol use during adolescence on hippocampal volume and asymmetry. Neurotoxicol Teratol 29:141–152

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Molina-Holgado F, Molina-Holgado E, Leret ML, González MI, Reader TA (1993) Distribution of indoleamines and [3H]paroxetine binding in rat brain regions following acute or perinatal delta 9-tetrahydrocannabinol treatments. Neurochem Res 18:1183–1191

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Moranta D, Esteban S, García-Sevilla JA (2004) Differential effects of acute cannabinoid drug treatment, mediated by CB1 receptors, on the in vivo activity of tyrosine and tryptophan hydroxylase in the rat brain. Naunyn-Schmiedeberg’s Arch Pharmacol 369:516–524

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Nakazi M, Bauer U, Nickel T, Kathmann M, Schlicker E (2000) Inhibition of serotonin release in the mouse brain via presynaptic cannabinoid CB1 receptors. Naunyn-Schmiedeberg’s Arch Pharmacol 361:19–24

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Nestor L, Hester R, Garavan H (2010) Increased ventral striatal BOLD activity during non-drug reward anticipation in cannabis users. Neuroimage 49:1133–1143

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Niedbala RS, Kardos KW, Fritch DF, Kardos S, Fries T, Waga J, Robb J, Cone EJ (2001) Detection of marijuana use by oral fluid and urine analysis following single-dose administration of smoked and oral marijuana. J Anal Toxicol 25:289–303

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Novaes MAFP, Guindalini C, Almeida P, Jungerman F, Bolla K, Laranjeira R, Lacerda A, Bressan RA (2008) Cannabis use before age 15 years is associated with poorer attention and executive function. Biol Psychiatry 63:18S–19S

    Google Scholar 

  • Paus T (2005) Mapping brain maturation and cognitive development during adolescence. Trends Cogn Sci 9:60–68

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pope HG Jr, Gruber AJ, Hudson JI, Cohane G, Huestis MA, Yurgelun-Todd D (2003) Early-onset cannabis use and cognitive deficits: what is the nature of the association? Drug Alcohol Depend 69:303–310

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sagredo O, Ramos JA, Fernández-Ruiz J, Rodríguez MLL, de Miguel R (2006) Chronic ∆9-tetrahydrocannabinol administration affects serotonin levels in the rat frontal cortex. Naunyn-Schmiedeberg’s Arch Pharmacol 372:313–317

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Schepis TS, Adinoff B, Rao U (2008) Neurobiological processes in adolescent addictive disorders. Am J Addict 17:6–23

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schneider M (2008) Puberty as a highly vulnerable developmental period for the consequences of cannabis exposure. Addict Biol 13:253–263

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schwartz RH, Gruenewald PJ, Klitzner M, Fedio P (1989) Short-term memory impairment in cannabis-dependent adolescents. Am J Dis Child 143:1214–1219

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sobell LC, Sobell MB (1992) Timeline follow-back: a technique for assessing self-reported alcohol consumption. In: Litten RZ, Allen JP (eds) Measuring alcohol consumption: psychosocial and biochemical methods. Humana, Totowa NJ, pp 41–72

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Solowij N, Battisti R (2008) The chronic effects of cannabis on memory in humans: a review. Curr Drug Abuse Rev 1:81–98

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Solowij N, Jones KA, Rozman ME, Davis SM, Ciarrochi J, Heaven PCL, Lubman DI, Yücel M (2011) Verbal learning and memory in adolescent cannabis users, alcohol users and non-users. Psychopharmacology 216:131–144

    Google Scholar 

  • Solowij N, Stephens RS, Roffman RA, Babor T, Kadden R, Miller M, Christiansen K, McRee B, Vendetti J, for the Marijuana Treatment Project Research Group (2002) Cognitive functioning of long-term heavy cannabis users seeking treatment. JAMA 287:1123–1131

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Soubrié P (1986) Reconciling the role of central serotonin neurons in human and animal behaviour. Behav Brain Res 9:319–364

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Spielberger CD (1989) State-trait anxiety inventory: a comprehensive bibliography. Consulting Psychologists Press, Palo Alto

    Google Scholar 

  • Steinberg L (2007) Risk taking in adolescence: new perspectives from brain and behavioural science. Curr Dir Psychol Sci 16:55–59

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Swift W, Copeland J, Hall W (1998) Choosing a diagnostic cut-off for cannabis dependence. Addiction 93:1681–1692

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Tapert SF, Schweinsburg AD, Drummond SPA, Paulus MP, Brown SA, Yang TT, Frank LR (2007) Functional MRI of inhibitory processing in abstinent adolescent marijuana users. Psychopharmacology 194:173–183

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Vandrey R, Budney AJ, Kamon JL, Stanger C (2005) Cannabis withdrawal in adolescent treatment seekers. Drug Alcohol Depend 78:205–210

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wesley MJ, Hanlon CA, Porrino LJ (2011) Poor decision-making by chronic marijuana users is associated with decreased functional responsiveness to negative consequences. Psychiatry Res Neuroimag 191:51–59

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Whitlow CT, Liguori A, Livengood LB, Hart SL, Mussat-Whitlow BJ, Lamborn CM (2004) Long-term heavy marijuana users make costly decisions on a gambling task. Drug Alcohol Depend 76:107–111

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Yücel M, Lubman DI, Solowij N, Brewer W (2007) Understanding drug addiction: a neuropsychological perspective. Aust NZ J Psychiatry 41:957–969

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Yücel M, Solowij N, Respondek C, Whittle S, Fornito A, Pantelis C, Lubman DI (2008) Regional brain abnormalities associated with long-term heavy cannabis use. Arch Gen Psychiatry 65:694–701

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Yücel M, Zalesky A, Takagi MJ, Bora E, Fornito A, Ditchfield M, Egan GF, Pantelis C, Lubman DI (2010) White-matter abnormalities in adolescents with long-term inhalant and cannabis use: a diffusion magnetic resonance imaging study. J Psychiatry Neurosci 35:409–412

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zavitsanou K, Wang H, Dalton VS, Nguyen V (2010) Cannabinoid administration increases 5HT1A receptor binding and mRNA expression in the hippocampus of adult but not adolescent rats. Neuroscience 169:315–324

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

This research was supported by grants from the National Health and Medical Research Council of Australia (Grant 514604) and the Australian Research Council (Grants LP0453853, DP0878925). A/Prof Yücel is supported by a National Health and Medical Research Council Clinical Career Development Award (Grant 509345). The authors had full control of the data, the study concept and design, and have no conflicts of interest to declare.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. School of Psychology, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, NSW, 2522, Australia

    Nadia Solowij, Katy A. Jones, Megan E. Rozman, Sasha M. Davis, Joseph Ciarrochi, Patrick C.L. Heaven & Nicole Pesa

  2. Schizophrenia Research Institute, Sydney, NSW, 2010, Australia

    Nadia Solowij

  3. Turning Point Alcohol and Drug Centre, Eastern Health and Monash University, Melbourne, Australia

    Katy A. Jones & Dan I. Lubman

  4. Melbourne Neuropsychiatry Centre, Department of Psychiatry, University of Melbourne and Melbourne Health, Melbourne, VIC, 3053, Australia

    Murat Yücel

Authors
  1. Nadia Solowij
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Katy A. Jones
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Megan E. Rozman
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Sasha M. Davis
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Joseph Ciarrochi
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  6. Patrick C.L. Heaven
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  7. Nicole Pesa
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  8. Dan I. Lubman
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  9. Murat Yücel
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Nadia Solowij.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Solowij, N., Jones, K.A., Rozman, M.E. et al. Reflection impulsivity in adolescent cannabis users: a comparison with alcohol-using and non-substance-using adolescents. Psychopharmacology 219, 575–586 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00213-011-2486-y

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00213-011-2486-y

Keywords

Search

Navigation