Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Perspectives on iteration in design and development

  • Original Paper
  • Published:
Research in Engineering Design Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Design, development, and other projects inevitably involve iteration. Iteration has positive effects, such as enabling progressive generation of knowledge, enabling concurrency, and integrating necessary changes, but it also increases duration and cost of a project. Managing iteration is thus an important issue in practice, but can be challenging due in part to a profusion of issues and terminologies. This article contributes a literature summary and integrating taxonomy to clarify the different perspectives on iteration. It brings together insights into iteration gained from different research communities (mainly design and product development, alongside selected work in construction management and software project management) and different research approaches (including conceptual frameworks, mathematical and simulation models, case studies and surveys, and protocol studies). By differentiating the issues and providing a uniform terminology, the article maps insights developed to date and may help situate future analyses of iterative processes.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4

Similar content being viewed by others

Notes

  1. For example, some articles include extremely brief mention of particular iterative situations. We used our judgement to determine whether such cases should be mapped onto the corresponding stereotypes in Table 6.

References

  • Adams RS, Atman CJ (2000) Characterizing engineering student design processes: an illustration of iteration. In: Proceedings of the ASEE annual conference, ASEE

  • Ahmad N, Wynn DC, Clarkson PJ (2013) Change impact on a product and its redesign process: a tool for knowledge capture and reuse. Res Eng Des 24(3):219–244

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ahmadi R, Wang R (1999) Managing development risk in product design processes. Oper Res 47(2):235–246

    Article  MATH  Google Scholar 

  • Ahmed S, Wallace KM, Blessing LTM (2003) Understanding the differences between how novice and experienced designers approach design tasks. Res Eng Des 14(1):1–11

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • AitSahlia F, Johnson E, Will P (1995) Is concurrent engineering always a sensible proposition? IEEE Trans Eng Manage 42(2):166–170

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ameri F, Summers JD, Mocko GM, Porter M (2008) Engineering design complexity: an investigation of methods and measures. Res Eng Des 19(2–3):161–179

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Arundachawat P, Roy R, Al-Ashaab A, Shehab E (2009) Design rework prediction in concurrent design environment: current trends and future research directions. In: Proceedings of the 19th CIRP design conference–competitive design, CIRP, pp 237–244

  • Asimow M (1962) Introduction to design. Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs

    Google Scholar 

  • Atman C, Chimka J, Bursic K, Nachtmann H (1999) A comparison of freshman and senior engineering design processes. Des Stud 20(2):131–152

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Austin S, Lyneis J, Bryant BJ (2001) Mapping the conceptual design activity of interdisciplinary teams. Des Stud 22(3):211–232

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Badke-Schaub P, Gehrlicher A (2003) Patterns of decisions in design: Leaps, loops, cycles, sequences and meta-processes. In: International conference on engineering design, ICED 03, Design Society

  • Ballard G (2000) Positive versus negative iteration in design. In: Proceedings of the eighth annual conference of the international group for lean construction, IGLC-6, IGLC, pp 17–19

  • Beauregard Y, Thomson V, Bhuiyan N (2008) Lean engineering logistics: load leveling of design jobs with capacity considerations. Can Aeronaut Space J 54(2):19–30

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bhuiyan N, Gerwin D, Thomson V (2004) Simulation of the new product development process for performance improvement. Manage Sci 50(12):1690–1703

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Boothroyd G (1994) Product design for manufacture and assembly. Comput Aided Des 26(7):505–520

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Boudouh T, Anghel DC, Garro O (2006) Design iterations in a geographically distributed design process. In: ElMaraghy HA, ElMaraghy WH (eds) Advances in design part VII. Springer, London, pp 377–385

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Braha D, Bar-Yam Y (2004a) Information flow structure in large-scale product development organizational networks. J Inf Technol 19(4):244–253

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Braha D, Bar-Yam Y (2004b) Topology of large-scale engineering problem-solving networks. Phys Rev E 69(1):016,113

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Braha D, Bar-Yam Y (2007) The statistical mechanics of complex product development: empirical and analytical results. Manage Sci 53(7):1127–1145

    Article  MATH  Google Scholar 

  • Braha D, Maimon O (1998) The measurement of a design structural and functional complexity. IEEE Trans Syst Man Cybern Part A Syst Hum 28(4):527–535

    Article  MATH  Google Scholar 

  • Braha D, Maimon O (2013) A mathematical theory of design: foundations, algorithms and applications, vol 17. Springer, Berlin

    MATH  Google Scholar 

  • Braha D, Brown DC, Chakrabarti A, Dong A, Fadel G, Maier JR, Seering W, Ullman DG, Wood K (2013) Dtm at 25: essays on themes and future directions. In: ASME 2013 international design engineering technical conferences and computers and information in engineering conference. American Society of Mechanical Engineers, pp V005T06A018–V005T06A018

  • Brown T (2008) Design thinking. Harvard Bus Rev 86(6):84

    Google Scholar 

  • Browning TR (1998) Modeling and analyzing cost, schedule and performance in complex system product development. PhD thesis, MIT

  • Browning TR, Eppinger SD (2002) Modeling impacts of process architecture on cost and schedule risk in product development. IEEE Trans Eng Manage 49(4):428–442

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bucciarelli LL (1994) Designing engineers. MIT Press, Cambridge, MA

    Google Scholar 

  • Cho SH, Eppinger SD (2005) A simulation-based process model for managing complex design projects. IEEE Trans Eng Manage 52(3):316–328

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chusilp P, Jin Y (2006) Impact of mental iteration on concept generation. J Mech Des 128(1):14–25

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Clark KB, Chew WB, Fujimoto T (1987) Product development in the world auto industry. Brookings Pap Econ Act 3:729–781

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Clausing D (1994) Total quality development. ASME Press, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Cooper KG, Steele J, Macmillan S, Kirby P, Spence R (2002) Learning to learn, from past to future. Int J Project Manage 20:213–219

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Costa R, Sobek DK (2003) Iteration in engineering design: Inherent and unavoidable or product of choices made? In: Proceedings of DETC03 ASME 2003 design engineering technical conferences and computers and information in engineering conference, ASME

  • Cusumano MA (1997) How microsoft makes large teams work like small teams. Sloan Manag Rev 39(1):9–20

    Google Scholar 

  • Cusumano MA, Selby R (1997) How microsoft builds software. Commun ACM 40(6):53–61

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dorst K, Cross N (2001) Creativity in the design process: co-evolution of problem-solution. Design Stud 22(5):425–437

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dowson M (1987) Iteration in the software process; review of the 3rd international software process workshop. In: Proceedings of the 9th international conference on software engineering, IEEE Computer Society Press, pp 36–41

  • Dybå T, Dingsøyr T (2008) Empirical studies of agile software development: a systematic review. Inf Softw Technol 50(9):833–859

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Eastman R (1980) Engineering information release prior to final design freeze. IEEE Trans Eng Manage EM–27(2):37–42

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Eckert CM, Clarkson PJ (2010) Planning development processes for complex products. Res Eng Des 21(3):153–171

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Eckert CM, Zanker W, Clarkson PJ (2004) Change and customisation in complex engineering domains. Res Eng Des 15(1):1–21

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Eckert CM, Isaksson O, Earl CF (2014) Design margins as a key to understanding design iteration. In: Proceedings of the ASME 2014 design engineering technical conferences and computers and information in engineering conference, ASME

  • Eisenhardt KM, Tabrizi BN (1995) Accelerating adaptive processes: product innovation in the global computer industry. Adm Sci Q 40(1):84–110

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Engel A, Reich Y (2015) Advancing architecture options theory: six industrial case studies. Syst Eng 18(4):396–414

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Eppinger SD (1991) Model-based approaches to managing concurrent engineering. J Eng Des 2(4):283–290

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Eppinger SD, Whitney DE, Smith RP, Gebala DA (1994) A model-based method for organizing tasks in product development. Res Eng Des 6:1–13

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Evans JH (1959) Basic design concepts. J Am Soc Naval Eng 71(4):671–678

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fairley RE, Willshire MJ (2005) Iterative rework: the good, the bad, and the ugly. Computer 38(9):34–41

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fernandes J, Henriques E, Silva A, Moss M (2014) A method for imprecision management in complex product development. Res Eng Des 25(4):309–324

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Flanagan T, Eckert CM, Clarkson PJ (2007) Externalizing tacit overview knowledge: a model-based approach to supporting design teams. Artif Intell Eng Des Anal Manuf 21(3):227–242

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ford DN, Sterman JD (2003) The liar’s club: concealing rework in concurrent development. Concur Eng Res Appl 11(3):211–219

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Galbraith JR (1974) Organization design: an information processing view. Interfaces 4(3):28–36

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gero JS (1990) Design prototypes: a knowledge representation schema for design. AI Magazine 11(4):26

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Guindon R (1990) Designing the design process: exploiting opportunistic thoughts. Hum Comput Interact 5(2):305–344

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ha A, Porteus E (1995) Optimal timing of reviews in concurrent design for manufacturability. Manage Sci 41(9):1431–1447

    Article  MATH  Google Scholar 

  • Haller M, Lu W, Stehn L, Jansson G (2014) An indicator for superfluous iteration in offsite building design processes. Archit Eng Des Manag 11:360–375

    Google Scholar 

  • Hatchuel A, Weil B (2009) Ck design theory: an advanced formulation. Res Eng Des 19(4):181–192

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hoedemaker G, Blackburn J, Wassenhove L (1999) Limits to concurrency. Decis Sci 30(1):1–18

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Howard TJ, Culley SJ, Dekoninck E (2008) Describing the creative design process by the integration of engineering design and cognitive psychology literature. Des Stud 29(2):160–180

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Huberman BA, Wilkinson DW (2005) Performance variability and project dynamics. Comput Math Organ Theory 11:307–332

    Article  MATH  Google Scholar 

  • Hwang BG, Thomas SR, Haas CT, Caldas CH (2009) Measuring the impact of rework on construction cost performance. J Constr Eng Manag 135(3):187–198

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hybs I, Gero JS (1992) An evolutionary process model of design. Des Stud 13(3):273–290

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Iansiti M, MacCormack A (1997) Developing products on internet time. Harvard Bus Rev 75(5):108–117

    Google Scholar 

  • Isaksson O, Keski-Seppälä S, Eppinger SD (2000) Evaluation of design process alternatives using signal flow graphs. J Eng Des 11(3):211–224

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jarratt T, Eckert CM, Caldwell N, Clarkson PJ (2011) Engineering change: an overview and perspective on the literature. Res Eng Des 22(2):103–124

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jin Y, Benami O (2010) Creative patterns and stimulation in conceptual design. Artif Intell Eng Des Anal Manuf 24(02):191–209

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jin Y, Chusilp P (2006) Study of mental iteration in different design situations. Des Stud 27(1):25–55

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Joglekar N, Yassine A, Eppinger SD, Whitney DE (2001) Performance of coupled product development activities with a deadline. Manage Sci 47(12):1605–1620

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jun HB, Suh HW (2008) A modeling framework for product development process considering its characteristics. IEEE Trans Eng Manage 55(1):103–119

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Karniel A, Reich Y (2009) From dsm-based planning to design process simulation: a review of process scheme logic verification issues. IEEE Trans Eng Manag 56(4):636–649

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Keller R, Eckert CM, Clarkson PJ (2008) Determining component freeze order: a redesign cost perspective using simulated annealing. In: ASME 2008 international design engineering technical conferences and computers and information in engineering conference, American Society of Mechanical Engineers, pp 333–342

  • Kim M, Zimmermann T, Nagappan N (2014) An empirical study of refactoring challenges and benefits at microsoft. IEEE Trans Softw Eng 40(7):633–649

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kline SJ (1985) Innovation is not a linear process. Res Manag 28(4):36–45

    Google Scholar 

  • Kolodner JL, Wills LM (1996) Powers of observation in creative design. Des Stud 17:385–416

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Krishnan V, Eppinger SD, Whitney DE (1995) Accelerating product development by the exchange of preliminary product design information. J Mech Des 117(12):491–498

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Krishnan V, Eppinger SD, Whitney DE (1997a) A model-based framework to overlap product development activities. Manage Sci 43(4):437–451

    Article  MATH  Google Scholar 

  • Krishnan V, Eppinger SD, Whitney DE (1997b) Simplifying iterations in cross-functional decision making. J Mech Des 119(12):485–493

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Larman C, Basili VR (2003) Iterative and incremental development: a brief history. Computer 6:47–56

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Le HN (2012) A transformation-based model integration framework to support iteration management in engineering design. PhD thesis, University of Cambridge

  • Lee J, Hong YS (2015) Design freeze sequencing using bayesian network framework. Ind Manag Data Syst 115(7):1204–1224

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Levitt RE, Thomsen J, Christiansen TR, Kunz JC, Jin Y, Nass C (1999) Simulating project work processes and organizations: toward a micro-contingency theory of organizational design. Manage Sci 45(11):1479–1495

    Article  MATH  Google Scholar 

  • Liker J, Morgan J (2006) The toyota way in services: the case of lean product development. Acad Manag Perspect 20(2):5–20

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lindemann U, Maurer M, Braun T (2009) Structural complexity management: an approach for the field of product design. Springer, Berlin

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Loch C, Terwiesch C (1998) Communication and uncertainty in concurrent engineering. Manage Sci 44(8):1032–1048

    Article  MATH  Google Scholar 

  • Loch C, Mihm J, Huchzermeier A (2003) Concurrent engineering and design oscillations in complex engineering projects. Concur Eng Res Appl 11(3):187–199

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Love PED (2002) Influence of project type and procurement method on rework costs in building construction projects. J Constr Eng Manag 128(1):18–29

    Article  MathSciNet  Google Scholar 

  • Love PED, Edwards DJ (2004) Forensic project management: the underlying causes of rework in construction projects. Civil Eng Environ Syst 21(3):207–228

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Love PED, Li H (2000) Quantifying the causes and costs of rework in construction. Constr Manag Econ 18(4):479–490

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Love PED, Mandal P, Li H (1999) Determining the causal structure of rework influences in construction. Constr Manag Econ 17(4):505–517

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Love PED, Edwards DJ, Watson H, Davis P (2010) Rework in civil infrastructure projects: determination of cost predictors. J Constr Eng Manag 136(3):275–282

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • MacCormack A, Verganti R, Iansiti M (2001) Developing products on “internet time”: the anatomy of a flexible development process. Manage Sci 47(1):133–150

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Maher ML, Poon J (1996) Modeling design exploration as coevolution. Microcomput Civil Eng 11:195–209

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Maier A, Störrle H (2011) What are the characteristics of engineering design processes? In: International conference on engineering design, ICED 11, Design Society

  • March L (1984) The logic of design. In: Cross N (ed) Developments in design methodology. Wiley, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Mens T, Tourwé T (2004) A survey of software refactoring. IEEE Trans Softw Eng 30(2):126–139

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mihm J, Loch C, Huchzermeier A (2003) Problem-solving oscillations in complex engineering projects. Manage Sci 46(6):733–750

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Moen RD, Norman CL (2010) Circling back. Qual Prog 43(11):22

    Google Scholar 

  • Oppenheim B (2004) Lean product development flow. Syst Eng 7(4):352–376

    Article  MathSciNet  Google Scholar 

  • Osborne SM (1993) Product development cycle time characterization through modeling of process iteration. Master’s thesis, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Boston, MA

  • Pahl G, Beitz W (1996) Engineering design. Springer, London

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Roemer T, Ahmadi R, Wang R (2000) Time-cost trade-offs in overlapped product development. Oper Res 48(6):858–865

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Safoutin MJ (2003) A methodology for empirical measurement of iteration in engineering design processes. PhD thesis, University of Washington

  • Safoutin MJ, Smith RP (1996) The iterative component of design. In: Proceedings of international conference on IEEE Engineering and technology management, 1996. IEMC 96, pp 564–569

  • Schlick CM, Duckwitz S, Schneider S (2013) Project dynamics and emerging complexity. Comput Math Organ Theory 19:415–480

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schön DA, Wiggins G (1992) Kinds of seeing and their functions in designing. Des Stud 13(2):135–156

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sered Y, Reich Y (2006) Standardization and modularization driven by minimizing overall process effort. Comput Aided Des 38(5):405–416

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Simon HA (1973) The structure of ill structured problems. Artif Intell 4(3–4):181–201

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Smith RP, Eppinger SD (1997a) Identifying controlling features of engineering design iteration. Manage Sci 43(3):276–293

    Article  MATH  Google Scholar 

  • Smith RP, Eppinger SD (1997b) A predictive model of sequential iteration in engineering design. Manage Sci 43(8):1104–1120

    Article  MATH  Google Scholar 

  • Smith RP, Eppinger SP (1993) Characteristics and models of iteration in engineering design. MIT manuscript available online

  • Smith RP, Leong A (1998) An observational study of design team process: a comparison of student and professional engineers. J Mech Des 120:636–642

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Smith RP, Tjandra P (1998) Experimental observation of iteration in engineering design. Res Eng Des 10(2):107–117

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Smith RP, Eppinger SD, Gopal A (1992) Testing an engineering design iteration model in an experimental setting. In: Proceedings of the fourth international design theory and methodology conference, ASME

  • Sobek DK, Ward A, Liker J (1999) Toyota’s principles of set-based concurrent engineering. Sloan Manag Rev 40(2):67–83

    Google Scholar 

  • Suss S, Thomson V (2012) Optimal design processes under uncertainty and reciprocal dependency. J Eng Des 23(10–11):826–848

    Google Scholar 

  • Taylor T, Ford DN (2006) Tipping point failure and robustness in single development projects. Syst Dyn Rev 22(1):51–71

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Terwiesch C, Loch CH (1999) Measuring the effectiveness of overlapping product development activities. Manage Sci 45(4):455–465

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Terwiesch C, Loch CH, Meyer AD (2002) Exchanging preliminary information in concurrent engineering: alternative coordination strategies. Organ Sci 13(4):402–419

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Thomke S (1998) Managing experimentation in the design of new products. Manage Sci 44(6):743–762

    Article  MATH  Google Scholar 

  • Thomke SH (1997) The role of flexibility in the development of new products: an empirical study. Res Policy 26:105–119

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Thuesen C, Hvam L (2011) Efficient on-site construction: learning points from a german platform for housing. Constr Innov 11(3):338–355

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Torraco RJ (2005) Writing integrative literature reviews: guidelines and examples. Hum Resour Dev Rev 4(3):356–367

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ulrich K, Eppinger S (2011) Product design and development, 5th edn. McGraw-Hill Education, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Unger D, Eppinger SD (2011) Improving product development process design: a method for managing information flows, risks, and iterations. J Eng Des 22(10):689–699

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ward A, Liker J, Cristiano J, Sobek D (1995) The second toyota paradox: how delaying decisions can make better cars faster. Sloan Manag Rev 36(3):43–61

    Google Scholar 

  • Wyatt DF, Wynn DC, Jarrett JP, Clarkson PJ (2012) Supporting product architecture design using computational design synthesis with network structure constraints. Res Eng Des 23(1):17–52

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wynn DC (2007) Model-based approaches to support process improvement in complex product development. PhD thesis, Cambridge University

  • Wynn DC, Clarkson PJ (2005) Models of designing. In: Clarkson PJ, Eckert CM (eds) Design process improvement: a review of current practice. Springer, London, pp 34–59

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Wynn DC, Eckert CM, Clarkson PJ (2007) Modelling iteration in engineering design. In: Proceedings of the 17th international conference on engineering design, Design Society

  • Wynn DC, Caldwell NHM, Clarkson PJ (2014) Predicting change propagation in complex design workflows. J Mech Des 136(8):081,009–1–081,009–13

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Yassine A, Braha D (2003) Complex concurrent engineering and the design structure matrix method. Concur Eng Res Appl 11(3):165–176

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Yassine A, Joglekar N, Braha D, Eppinger SD, Whitney D (2003) Information hiding in product development: the design churn effect. Res Eng Des 14:145–161

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

The authors gratefully acknowledge John Clarkson, Nam Le, and other collaborators for discussions and feedback on the topic of design process iteration. We also thank the Editor and anonymous reviewers whose insightful comments helped to improve the manuscript.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Mechanical Engineering, The University of Auckland, 20 Symonds Street, Auckland, 1010, New Zealand

    David C. Wynn

  2. Department of Engineering and Innovation, The Open University, Walton Hall, Milton Keynes, MK7 6AA, UK

    Claudia M. Eckert

Authors
  1. David C. Wynn
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Claudia M. Eckert
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to David C. Wynn.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Wynn, D.C., Eckert, C.M. Perspectives on iteration in design and development. Res Eng Design 28, 153–184 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00163-016-0226-3

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Revised:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00163-016-0226-3

Keywords

Search

Navigation