Abstract
Objective
Channelopathies due to the brain ion channel dysfunction is considered to be an important mechanism involved in various neurodegenerative diseases. In this study, we evaluated the ability of kaliotoxin (KTX) as K+ channel blocker to induce neuro-inflammatory response and neurodegenerative alteration. We also investigate the effects of astaxanthin (ATX) against KTX disorders.
Material and treatment
NMRI mice were injected with KTX (1 pg/kg, by i.c.v route) with or without pretreatment using ATX (80 mg/kg, o.p route).
Results
Results showed that KTX was detected in cerebral cortex area due to its binding to the specific receptors (immunofluorescence analysis). It induced an activation of inflammatory cascade characterized by an increase of IL-6, TNFα, NO, MDA levels and NF-κB expression associated to a decrease of GSH level. The neuroinflammatory response is accompanied with cerebral alterations and blood–brain barrier (BBB) disruption. The use of ATX prior to the KTX exerts a preventive effect not only on the neuroinflammation but also on altered tissues and the BBB disruption.
Conclusions
Kaliotoxin is able to induce neurological disorders by blocking the K+ ion channel, and ATX suppresses this alterations with down regulation of IL-6, TNF-α and NF-κB expression in the brain.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Laraba-Djebari F, Legros C, Crest M, Ceard B, Romi R, Mansuelle P, et al. The kaliotoxin family enlarged. Purification, characterization, and precursor nucleotide sequence of KTX2 from Androctonus australis venom. J Biol Chem. 1994;269:32835–43.
Ladjel-Mendil A, Martin-Eauclaire MF, Laraba-Djebari F. Neuropathophysiological effect and immuno-inflammatory response induced by kaliotoxin of Androctonus scorpion venom. Neuroimmunomodulation. 2013;20:99–106.
Taibi-Djennah Z, Matin-Eauclaire MF, Laraba-Djebari F. Systemic responses following brain injuries and inflammatory process activation induced by a neurotoxin of Androctonus scorpion venom. Neuroimmunomodulation. 2015;22(6):347–57.
Juhng KN, Kokate TG, Yamaguchi S, Kim BY, Rogowski RS, Blaustein MP, et al. Induction of seizures by the potent K+ channel-blocking scorpion venom peptide toxins tityustoxin-K(alpha) and pandinustoxin-K(alpha). Epilepsy Res. 1999;34:177–86.
Mazzuca M, Lesage F, Lazdunski M. Canaux ioniques et épilepsies. Epileptic Disord. 2004;6(1):1–16.
Lucas SM, Rothwell NJ, Gibson RM. The role of inflammation in CNS injury and disease. Br J Pharmacol. 2006;147(Suppl 1):S232–40.
Ravizza T, Balosso S, Vezzani A. Inflammation and prevention of epileptogenesis. Neurosci Lett. 2011;497:223–30.
Croll SD, Goodman JH, Scharfman HE. Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) in seizures: a double-edged sword. Adv Exp Med Biol. 2004;548:57–68.
Vezzani A, Aronica E, Mazarati A, Pittman QJ. Epilepsy and brain inflammation. Exp Neurol. 2013;244:11–21.
Desport JC. Home artificial nutrition in chronic neurological disorders. Clin Nutr. 2002;21:97–8 (author reply 98–99).
Bouayed J, Bohn T. Exogenous antioxidants—double-edged swords in cellular redox state: health beneficial effects at physiologic doses versus deleterious effects at high doses. Oxid Med Cell Longev. 2010;3:228–37.
Lucke-Wold BP, Nguyen L, Turner RC, Logsdon AF, Chen YW, Smith KE, et al. Traumatic brain injury and epilepsy: underlying mechanisms leading to seizure. Seizure J Br Epilepsy Assoc. 2015;33:13–23.
Gelain DP, Antonio Behr G, Birnfeld de Oliveira R, Trujillo M. Antioxidant therapies for neurodegenerative diseases: mechanisms, current trends, and perspectives. Oxid Med Cell Longev. 2012;2012:895153.
Sandhir R, Yadav A, Sunkaria A, Singhal N. Nano-antioxidants: an emerging strategy for intervention against neurodegenerative conditions. Neurochem Int. 2015;89:209–26.
Rao AV, Rao LG. Carotenoids and human health. Pharmacol Res Off J Ital Pharmacol Soc. 2007;55:207–16.
Palozza P, Krinsky NI. Antioxidant effects of carotenoids in vivo and in vitro: an overview. Methods Enzymol. 1992;213:403–20.
Moreno I, Pichardo S, Jos A, Gomez-Amores L, Mate A, Vazquez CM, et al. Antioxidant enzyme activity and lipid peroxidation in liver and kidney of rats exposed to microcystin-LR administered intraperitoneally. Toxicon Off J Int Soc Toxinol. 2005;45:395–402.
Jollow DJ, Mitchell JR, Zampaglione N, Gillette JR. Bromobenzene-induced liver necrosis. Protective role of glutathione and evidence for 3,4-bromobenzene oxide as the hepatotoxic metabolite. Pharmacology. 1974;11:151–69.
Aebi H. Catalase in vitro. Methods Enzymol. 1984;105:121–6.
Yang C, Zhang X, Fan H, Liu Y. Curcumin upregulates transcription factor Nrf2, HO-1 expression and protects rat brains against focal ischemia. Brain Res. 2009;1282:133–41.
Alves da Silva JA, Oliveira KC, Camillo MA. Gyroxin increases blood-brain barrier permeability to Evans blue dye in mice. Toxicon Off J Int Soc Toxinol. 2011;57:162–7.
Bradley PP, Priebat DA, Christensen RD, Rothstein G. Measurement of cutaneous inflammation: estimation of neutrophil content with an enzyme marker. J Invest Dermatol. 1982;78:206–9.
Lee R, Margaritis M, Channon KM, Antoniades C. Evaluating oxidative stress in human cardiovascular disease: methodological aspects and considerations. Curr Med Chem. 2012;19:2504–20.
Yuste JE, Tarragon E, Campuzano CM, Ros-Bernal F. Implications of glial nitric oxide in neurodegenerative diseases. Front Cell Neurosci. 2015;9:322.
El Assar M, Angulo J, Rodriguez-Manas L. Oxidative stress and vascular inflammation in aging. Free Radic Biol Med. 2013;65:380–401.
Circu ML, Aw TY. Glutathione and apoptosis. Free Radical Res. 2008;42:689–706.
Glorieux C, Zamocky M, Sandoval JM, Verrax J, Calderon PB. Regulation of catalase expression in healthy and cancerous cells. Free Radic Biol Med. 2015;87:84–97.
Weiss N, Miller F, Cazaubon S, Couraud PO. The blood-brain barrier in brain homeostasis and neurological diseases. Biochim Biophys Acta. 2009;1788:842–57.
Lecuyer MA, Kebir H, Prat A. Glial influences on BBB functions and molecular players in immune cell trafficking. Biochimica Biophys Acta. 2016;1862(3):472–82.
van Vliet EA, Aronica E, Gorter JA. Blood-brain barrier dysfunction, seizures and epilepsy. Semin Cell Dev Biol. 2015;38:26–34.
Kullmann DM. The neuronal channelopathies. Brain J Neurol. 2002;125:1177–95.
Brenner R, Wilcox KS. Potassium channelopathies of epilepsy. In: Noebels JL, Avoli M, Rogawski MA, Olsen RW, Delgado-Escueta AV, editors. Jasper’s basic mechanisms of the epilepsies. Bethesda: National Center for Biotechnology Information; 2012.
Zhu X, Dong J, Shen K, Bai Y, Zhang Y, Lv X, et al. NMDA receptor NR2B subunits contribute to PTZ-kindling-induced hippocampal astrocytosis and oxidative stress. Brain Res Bull. 2015;114:70–8.
Morigiwa K, Fukuda Y, Yamashita M. Neurotransmitter ATP and cytokine release. Nihon Yakurigaku Zasshi Folia Pharmacol Jpn. 2000;115:185–92.
Meffert MK, Chang JM, Wiltgen BJ, Fanselow MS, Baltimore D. NF-kappa B functions in synaptic signaling and behavior. Nat Neurosci. 2003;6:1072–8.
Li W, Suwanwela NC, Patumraj S. Curcumin by down regulating NF-kB and elevating Nrf2, reduces brain edema and neurological dysfunction after cerebral I/R. Microvasc Res. 2015.
Jin W, Wang J, Zhu T, Yuan B, Ni H, Jiang J, et al. Anti-inflammatory effects of curcumin in experimental spinal cord injury in rats. Inflamm Res Off J Eur Histamine Res Soc. 2014;63:381–7.
Sun W, Liu J, Huan Y, Zhang C. Intracranial injection of recombinant stromal-derived factor-1 alpha (SDF-1alpha) attenuates traumatic brain injury in rats. Inflamm Res Off J Eur Histamine Res Soc. 2014;63:287–97.
Yang XL, Kim CK, Kim TJ, Sun J, Rim D, Kim YJ, et al. Anti-inflammatory effects of fimasartan via Akt, ERK, and NFkappaB pathways on astrocytes stimulated by hemolysate. Inflamm Res Off J Eur Histamine Res Soc. 2016;65:115–23.
McGuire C, Prinz M, Beyaert R, van Loo G. Nuclear factor kappa B (NF-kappaB) in multiple sclerosis pathology. Trends Mol Med. 2013;19:604–13.
Miller JA, Kirkley KA, Padmanabhan R, Liang LP, Raol YH, Patel M, et al. Repeated exposure to low doses of kainic acid activates nuclear factor kappa B (NF-kappaB) prior to seizure in transgenic NF-kappaB/EGFP reporter mice. Neurotoxicology. 2014;44:39–47.
Hu YC, Sun Q, Li W, Zhang DD, Ma B, Li S, et al. Biphasic activation of nuclear factor kappa B and expression of p65 and c-Rel after traumatic brain injury in rats. Inflamm Res Off J Eur Histamine Res Soc. 2014;63:109–15.
Halliwell B, Gutteridge JMC. Free radicals in biology and medicine. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 1999. p. 936.
Bhuyan P, Patel DC, Wilcox KS, Patel M. Oxidative stress in murine Theiler’s virus-induced temporal lobe epilepsy. Exp Neurol. 2015;271:329–34.
Dal-Pizzol F, Klamt F, Vianna MM, Schroder N, Quevedo J, Benfato MS, et al. Lipid peroxidation in hippocampus early and late after status epilepticus induced by pilocarpine or kainic acid in Wistar rats. Neurosci Lett. 2000;291:179–82.
Sgaravatti AM, Magnusson AS, Oliveira AS, Mescka CP, Zanin F, Sgarbi MB, et al. Effects of 1,4-butanediol administration on oxidative stress in rat brain: study of the neurotoxicity of gamma-hydroxybutyric acid in vivo. Metab Brain Dis. 2009;24:271–82.
Droge W. Free radicals in the physiological control of cell function. Physiol Rev. 2002;82:47–95.
Schreibelt G, Kooij G, Reijerkerk A, van Doorn R, Gringhuis SI, van der Pol S, et al. Reactive oxygen species alter brain endothelial tight junction dynamics via RhoA, PI3 kinase, and PKB signaling. FASEB J Off Pub Feder Am Soc Exp Biol. 2007;21:3666–76.
Lochhead JJ, McCaffrey G, Quigley CE, Finch J, DeMarco KM, Nametz N, et al. Oxidative stress increases blood-brain barrier permeability and induces alterations in occludin during hypoxia-reoxygenation. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab Off J Int Soc Cereb Blood Flow Metab. 2010;30:1625–36.
Rochfort KD, Collins LE, Murphy RP, Cummins PM. Downregulation of blood-brain barrier phenotype by proinflammatory cytokines involves NADPH oxidase-dependent ROS generation: consequences for interendothelial adherens and tight junctions. PLoS ONE. 2014;9:e101815.
Vezzani A, Balosso S, Ravizza T. The role of cytokines in the pathophysiology of epilepsy. Brain Behav Immun. 2008;22:797–803.
Pacher P, Beckman JS, Liaudet L. Nitric oxide and peroxynitrite in health and disease. Physiol Rev. 2007;87:315–424.
Saito K, Suyama K, Nishida K, Sei Y, Basile AS. Early increases in TNF-alpha, IL-6 and IL-1 beta levels following transient cerebral ischemia in gerbil brain. Neurosci Lett. 1996;206:149–52.
Dunkelberger JR, Song WC. Complement and its role in innate and adaptive immune responses. Cell Res. 2010;20:34–50.
Holman DW, Klein RS, Ransohoff RM. The blood-brain barrier, chemokines and multiple sclerosis. Biochim Biophys Acta. 2011;1812:220–30.
Ullen A, Singewald E, Konya V, Fauler G, Reicher H, Nusshold C, et al. Myeloperoxidase-derived oxidants induce blood-brain barrier dysfunction in vitro and in vivo. PLoS ONE. 2013;8:e64034.
Dheen ST, Kaur C, Ling EA. Microglial activation and its implications in the brain diseases. Curr Med Chem. 2007;14:1189–97.
Stone KD, Prussin C, Metcalfe DD. IgE, mast cells, basophils, and eosinophils. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2010;125:S73–80.
Lee DH, Lee YJ, Kwon KH. Neuroprotective effects of astaxanthin in oxygen-glucose deprivation in SH-SY5Y cells and global cerebral ischemia in rat. J Clin Biochem Nutr. 2010;47:121–9.
Guerra BA, Otton R. Impact of the carotenoid astaxanthin on phagocytic capacity and ROS/RNS production of human neutrophils treated with free fatty acids and high glucose. Int Immunopharmacol. 2011;11:2220–6.
Wu W, Wang X, Xiang Q, Meng X, Peng Y, Du N, et al. Astaxanthin alleviates brain aging in rats by attenuating oxidative stress and increasing BDNF levels. Food Funct. 2014;5:158–66.
Lee DH, Kim CS, Lee YJ. Astaxanthin protects against MPTP/MPP+-induced mitochondrial dysfunction and ROS production in vivo and in vitro. Food Chem Toxicol Int J Pub Br Ind Biol Res Assoc. 2011;49:271–80.
Ye Q, Huang B, Zhang X, Zhu Y, Chen X. Astaxanthin protects against MPP(+)-induced oxidative stress in PC12 cells via the HO-1/NOX2 axis. BMC Neurosci. 2012;13:156.
Pashkow FJ, Watumull DG, Campbell CL. Astaxanthin: a novel potential treatment for oxidative stress and inflammation in cardiovascular disease. Am J Cardiol. 2008;101:58D–68D.
Sawicka-Glazer E, Czuczwar SJ. Vitamin C: a new auxiliary treatment of epilepsy? Pharmacol Rep PR. 2014;66:529–33.
Xavier SM, Barbosa CO, Barros DO, Silva RF, Oliveira AA, Freitas RM. Vitamin C antioxidant effects in hippocampus of adult Wistar rats after seizures and status epilepticus induced by pilocarpine. Neurosci Lett. 2007;420:76–9.
Zhang XS, Zhang X, Wu Q, Li W, Wang CX, Xie GB, et al. Astaxanthin offers neuroprotection and reduces neuroinflammation in experimental subarachnoid hemorrhage. J Surg Res. 2014;192:206–13.
Kim YH, Koh HK, Kim DS. Down-regulation of IL-6 production by astaxanthin via ERK-, MSK-, and NF-kappaB-mediated signals in activated microglia. Int Immunopharmacol. 2010;10:1560–72.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
Additional information
Responsible Editor: John Di Battista.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Sifi, N., Martin-Eauclaire, MF. & Laraba-Djebari, F. K+ channel blocker-induced neuroinflammatory response and neurological disorders: immunomodulatory effects of astaxanthin. Inflamm. Res. 65, 623–634 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00011-016-0945-y
Received:
Revised:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00011-016-0945-y