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Antioxidative peptides: enzymatic production, in vitro and in vivo antioxidant activity and potential applications of milk-derived antioxidative peptides

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Abstract

The beneficial effects of food-derived antioxidants in health promotion and disease prevention are being increasingly recognized. Recently, there has been a particular focus on milk-derived peptides; as a source of antioxidants, these peptides are inactive within the sequence of the parent protein but can be released during enzyme hydrolysis. Once released, the peptides have been shown to possess radical scavenging, metal ion chelation properties and the ability to inhibit lipid peroxidation. A variety of methods have been used to evaluate in vitro antioxidant activity, however, there is no standardised methodology, which hinders comparison of data. This review provides an overview on the generation of antioxidative peptides from milk proteins, the proposed mechanisms of protein/peptide induced antioxidant activity, in vitro measurement of antioxidant activity, in vivo evaluation of plasma antioxidant capacity and the bioavailability of antioxidative peptides. The understanding gained from other food proteins is referred to where specific data on milk-derived peptides are limited. The potential applications and health benefits of antioxidant peptides are discussed with a particular focus on the aging population. The regulatory requirements for peptide-based antioxidant functional foods are also considered.

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Abbreviations

AAPH:

2,2′-Azobis-2-methyl-propanimidamide dihydrochloride

ABAP:

2,2-Azobis(2-aminopropane) hydrochloride

ABTS:

2,2′-Azinobis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulphonic acid

α-LA:

α-Lactalbumin

Ala:

Alanine

AO:

Antioxidant

AOC:

Antioxidant capacity

AOPI:

Antioxidative potency index

Arg:

Arginine

Asp:

Aspartic acid

AUC:

Area under the curve

BHA:

Butylated hydroxylanisole

BHT:

Butylated hydroxyltoluene

β-CN:

β-Casein

β-LG:

β-Lactoglobulin

CA:

Caffeic acid

Caco-2:

Human adenocarcinoma colon cancer cell monolayer

Cap-e:

Cell-based antioxidant protection assay

CCl4 :

Carbon tetrachloride

CN:

Casein

CAT:

Catalase

CPP:

Caseinphosphopeptide

Cys:

Cysteine

DCFH-DA:

Dichlorofluorescein diacetate

DH:

Degree of hydrolysis

DMPO:

5,5-Dimethyl-1-pyrroline N-oxide

DPPH:

2,2-Diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl

DSHEA:

Dietary Supplements and Health Education Act

ECL:

Enhanced chemiluminescence

E:S:

Enzyme to substrate ratio

ESR:

Electron spin resonance

EFSA:

European Food Safety Authority

ET:

Electron transfer

EWH:

Egg white hydrolysate

EU:

European Union

FDA:

United States Food and Drug Administration

FOSHU:

Foods for specific health use

FPH:

Fish protein hydrolysate

FRAP:

Ferric reducing antioxidant power

GSH:

Glutathione

GPx:

Glutathione peroxidase

Gln:

Glutamine

Glu:

Glutamic acid

Gly:

Glycine

GSSG:

Oxidised glutathione

HAT:

Hydrogen atom transfer

HepG2:

Human hepatocarcinoma

His:

Histidine

OH˚:

Hydroxyl radical

H2O2 :

Hydrogen peroxide

Ile:

Isoleucine

Leu:

Leucine

Lys:

Lysine

MDA:

Malondialdehyde

Met:

Methionine

MTT:

3-(4,5-Dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide

NDA:

Dietetic products, nutrition and allergies

NLEA:

Nutrition Labeling and Education Act

NO:

Nitric oxide

NOX4:

NADPH 4 oxidase

ORAC:

Oxygen radical absorbance capacity assay

PAC:

Plasma antioxidant capacity

Phe:

Phenylalanine

Pro:

Proline

QSAR:

Quantitative structure activity relationship

RACI:

Relative antioxidant capacity index

ROO·:

Peroxyl radical

ROS:

Reactive oxygen species

RP-HPLC:

Reverse phase-high performance liquid chromatography

Ser:

Serine

SHR:

Spontaneously hypertensive rats

SOD:

Superoxide dismutase

SOSA:

Superoxide anion scavenging activity

O2·:

Superoxide radical

TAC:

Total antioxidant capacity

TBARS:

Thiobarbituric acid reactive substances

TEAC:

Trolox equivalent antioxidant capacity

Thr:

Threonine

TRAP:

Total radical trapping antioxidant potential

Trp:

Tryptophan

Tyr:

Tyrosine

UF:

Ultrafiltration

US:

United States

Val:

Valine

WPC:

Whey protein concentrate

WPI:

Whey protein isolate

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Acknowledgments

The authors wish to acknowledge Dr. Fiona Lalor, Food for Health Ireland, School of Public Health and Population Science, University College Dublin for her helpful discussion and guidance on international regulatory requirements for functional foods. This research was supported by Enterprise Ireland under Grant Number CC20080001.

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  1. Food for Health Ireland, Department of Life Sciences, University of Limerick, Schrodinger Building, Limerick, Ireland

    O. Power & R. J. FitzGerald

  2. Food for Health Ireland, Department of Physical Education and Sports Science, University of Limerick, Limerick, Ireland

    P. Jakeman

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Power, O., Jakeman, P. & FitzGerald, R.J. Antioxidative peptides: enzymatic production, in vitro and in vivo antioxidant activity and potential applications of milk-derived antioxidative peptides. Amino Acids 44, 797–820 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00726-012-1393-9

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