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Dichogamy in angiosperms

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Abstract

We obtained information on dichogamy and other aspects of the biology of over 4200 species of angiosperms from several hundred published and unpublished sources. We used this information to describe patterns of occurrence of dichogamy and to test specific hypotheses relating dichogamy to other characteristics of plants or their environments.

Protandry was more common than protogyny at the intrafloral level, but the reverse was true at the interfloral level. Patterns of dichogamy varied significantly among major taxa, with protogyny more common among monocotyledons and primitive dicotyledons, and protandry expecially common in the Asteridae. Arctic species tended to be less dichogamous and more protogynous than temperate and tropical species. Aquatic and alpine species were especially protogynous. Patterns of dichogamy varied among sexual systems, with gynomonoecious and gynodioecious species especially protandrous, and monoecious species highly protogynous. Autogamous and self-compatible species were disproportionately protogynous. Flowers of intraflorally dichogamous species were slightly larger than those of adichogamous species, owing to the presence of many autogamous species in the latter group. Species with interfloral protogyny bore much smaller flowers than did species with interfloral protandry. Early-blooming species in north-temperate and polar regions were disproportionately protogynous. Sexual structures that abscised, shriveled or moved after completion of their function tended to be presented first, and those that facilitated the other sexual function were presented second. A negative association existed between type of intrafloral and interfloral dichogamy in diclinous species. Most animal-pollinated flowers were protandrous, except beetle-pollinated and refuge and trap blossoms. Wind pollination was markedly associated with protogyny. Vertical inflorescences visited by upwardly-moving vectors were protandrous.

Our results suggest that three primary factors may be involved in promoting dichogamy: selection for avoidance of pollen-pistil interference, selection for avoidance of self-fertilization, and selection for synchrony of pollen discharge and stigma receptivity in the different flower types of diclinous species. In contrast to many earlier workers we reject the thesis that avoidance of self-fertilization is the universal or even the most important force in the evolution of most forms of dichogamy.

We attribute the prevalence of intrafloral protandry to selection for avoiding interference between pollen export and pollen receipt. Intrafloral protogyny was associated with imprecise pollen transfer, where other means of avoiding pollen-pistil interference (e.g., herkogamy) are likely to be of limited value. The prevalence of interfloral protogyny seems to reflect the smaller size of unisexual flowers than bisexual flowers, the absence of intrafloral pollen-pistil interference in diclinous species, and selection for synchrony of pollen discharge from one flower type with stigma receptivity in the other.

Résumé

Les informations obtenues sur la dichogamie et les autres aspects de la biologie de plus 4200 espèces d’angiosperme proviennent de plusieurs centaines de sources publiées ou non. Nous nous sommes servis de ces informations pour décrire les modes d’apparition de la dichogamie et pour mettre à l’essai des hypothèses spécifiques mettant en relation la dichogamie avec d’autres caractéristiques des plantes et leur environnement.

Au niveau intrafloral la protandrie s’est révélée être plus fréquente que la protogynie, mais le contraire s’est vérifié au niveau interfloral. Les formes de la dichogamie diffèrent de façon significative parmi les principaux taxons avec la protogynie plus fréquente chez les monocotylédones et les dicotylédones primitives, de même que la protandrie plus particulièrement fréquente chez les Asteridae. Nous avons remarqué chez les espèces arctiques une tendance à être plus protogyniques et moins dichogames que les espèces tropicales. Les espèces alpines et aquatiques étaient particulièrement protogyniques. Les formes de la dichogamie changeaient selon le système sexué: les espèces gynomonéciques et gynodiéciques étaient particulièrement protandres tandis que les espèces monéciques étaient grandement protogyniques. Les espèces autogamiques et auto-compatibles étaient protogyniques de façon disproportionnée. Les fleurs des espèces dichogames étaient sensiblement plus grandes que celles des espèces adichogamiques en raison de la présence de nombreuses espèces autogamiques précédemment citées. Les espèces avec une protogynie interflorale portaient des fleurs nettement plus petites par rapport aux espèces à protandrie interflorale. Les espèces à floraison précoce des régions nord-tempéré et polaire étaient protogyniques de façon disproportionnée. Les structures sexuées qui se détachaient, se flétrissaient ou changeaient de place après accomplissement de leur fonction, se présentaient habituellement en premier tandis que celles qui facilitaient l’autre fonction sexuelle se présentaient en seconde position. Dans les espèces diclines il existait une association négative entre la dichogamie de type intrafloral et celle de type interfloral. La plupart des fleurs pollinisées par les animaux étaient protandres excepté celles fécondées par des coléoptères ou celles servant de refuge ou de piège pour insectes. La pollinisation par le vent était associée de façon marquée à la protogynie. Les inflorescences verticales visitées par des vecteurs ascendants étaient protandres.

Les résultats obtenus suggèrent que trois facteurs de base puissent être impliqués pour mettre en évidence la dichogamie: sélection afin d’éviter l’interférence entre le pollen et le pistil, sélection afin d’éviter l’autofécondation et enfin sélection en faveur d’une synchronie entre le dépôt du pollen et la réception des stigmates dans les différents types de fleurs d’espèces diclines. Contrairement à de nombreux chercheurs qui ont travaillé auparavant sur ce même sujet, nous rejetons la thèse que le fait d’éviter l’autofécondation soit l’importance de poids dans l’évolution de la plupart des formes de la dichogamie.

Nous attribuons la prédominance de la protandrie intraflorale à la sélection d’une non-interférence entre l’exportation et la réception du pollen. La protogynie intraflorale était associée à un transport de pollen imprécis alors que d’autres moyens de non-interférence entre le pollen et le pistil (par example l’erkogamie) avaient de fortes chances d’être de valeur limitée. La prédominance de la protogynie interflorale semble refléter la plus petite taille des fleurs unisexuées par rapport à celle des fleurs bisexuées, l’absence d’une interférence intraflorale pollen-pistil dans les espèces diclines, et la sélection d’une synchronie du dépôt de pollen à partir d’un type de fleurs avec réception de stigmates dans l’autre type de fleurs existant.

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Bertin, R.I., Newman, C.M. Dichogamy in angiosperms. Bot. Rev 59, 112–152 (1993). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02856676

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