Abstract
Climate, organisms, topographic relief, and parent material interacting through time are the dominant factors that control processes of soil formation and determine soil properties. In both forest and savanna ecosystems, trees affect soil properties through several pathways. Trees alter inputs to the soil system by increasing capture of wetfall and dryfall and by adding to soil N via N2-fixation. They affect the morphology and chemical conditions of the soil as a result of the characteristics of above- and below-ground litter inputs. The chemical and physical nature of leaf, bark, branch, and roots alter decomposition and nutrient availability via controls on soil water and the soil fauna involved in litter breakdown. Extensive lateral root systems scavenge soil nutrients and redistribute them beneath tree canopies. In general, trees represent both conduits through which nutrients cycle and sites for the accumulation of nutrients within a landscape. From an ecological perspective, the soil patches found beneath tree canopies are important local and regional nutrient reserves that influence community structure and ecosystem function. Understanding species-specific differences in tree-soil interactions has important and immediate interest to farmers and agroforesters concerned with maintaining or increasing site productivity. Lessons from natural plant-soil systems provide a guide for predicting the direction and magnitude of tree influences on soil in agroforestry settings. The challenge for agroforesters is to determine under what conditions positive tree effects will accumulate simultaneously within active farming systems and which require rotation of cropping and forest fallows.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Alstad G and Vetaas OR (1994) The influence ofAcacia tortilis stands on soil properties in arid north-eastern Sudan. Acta Oecol 15(4): 449–460
Alway FJ, Kitteredge J and Methley WJ (1933) Composition of the forest floor layers under different forest types on the same soil type. Soil Sci 36: 387–398
Amundson RG, Ali AR and Belsky AJ (1995) Stomatal responsiveness to changing light intensity increases rain-use efficiency of below-crown vegetation in tropical savannas. J Arid Environ 29: 139–153
Belsky AJ, Amundson RG, Duxbury JM, Riha SJ and Mwonga SM (1989) The effects of trees on their physical, chemical, and biological environments in a semi-arid savanna in Kenya. J Appl Ecol 26: 1005–1024
Belsky AJ and Canham CD (1994) Forest gaps and isolated savanna trees. Bioscience 44: 77–84
Belsky AJ, Mwonga SM and Duxbury JM (1993) Effects of widely spaced trees and livestock grazing on understory environments in tropical savannas. Agrofor Syst 24: 1–20
Belsky AJ (1994) Influences of trees on savanna productivity: test of shade, nutrients, and tree-grass competition. Ecology 75: 922–932
Ben-Shar R (1991) Abundance of trees and grasses in a woodland savanna in relation to environment factors. J Veget Sci 2: 345–350
Beniamino F, Ponge JF and Arpin P (1991) Soil acidification under the crown of oak trees. I. Spatial distribution. For Ecol Manage 40: 221–232
Bernhard-Reversat F (1982) Biogeochemical cycle of nitrogen in a semi-arid savanna. Oikos 38: 321–332
Binkley D (1986) Forest Nutrient Management. John Wiley and Sons, New York, 290 pp
Binkley D and Valenine D (1991) Fifty-year biogeochemical effects of green ash, white pine, and Norway spruce in a replicated experiment. For Ecol Manage 40: 13–25
Birkeland PW (1984) Soils and Geomorphology. Oxford University Press, New York, 372 pp
Boettcher SE and Kalisz PJ (1990) Single-tree influence on soil properties in the mountains of eastern Kentucky. Ecology 71: 1365–1372
Boettcher SE and Kalisz PJ (1991) Single-tree influence on earthworms in forest soils in eastern Kentucky. Soil Sci Soc Am J 55: 862–865
Breman H and Kessler JJ (1995) Woody Plants in Agro-Ecosystems of Semi-Arid Regions. Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 340 pp
Budowski G (1993) The scope and potential of agroforestry in Central America. Agrofor Syst 23: 121–131
Campbell BM, Clarke JM and Gumbo DJ (1991) Traditional agroforestry practices in Zimbabwe. Agrofor Syst 14: 99–111
Campbell BM, Frost P, King JA, Mawanza M and Mhlanga L (1994) The influence of trees on soil fertility on two contrasting semi-arid soil types at Matopos, Zimbabwe. Agrofor Syst 28: 159–172
Challinor D (1968) Alteration of surface soil characteristics by four tree species. Ecology 49: 286–290
Charley JL and West NE (1975) Plant-induced soil chemical patterns in some shrub-dominated semi-desert ecosystems of Utah. J Ecol 63: 945–963
Charreau C and Vidal P (1965) Influence de l'Acacia albida Del. sur le sol, nutrition minerale et rendements des mils Pennisetum au Senegal. L'Agronomie Tropicale 6-7: 600–626
Coleman DC, Edwards AL, Belsky AJ and Mwonga S (1991) The distribution and abundance of soil nematodes in East African savannas. Biol Fertil Soils 12: 67–72
Coughenour MB and Ellis JE (1993) Landscape and climate control of woody vegetation in a dry tropical ecosystem: Turkana District, Kenya. J Biogeogr 20: 383–398
Crampton CB (1984) Concentric zonation of gleyed soils under individual tree canopies in south-western British Columbia. Geoderma 32: 329–334
Crocker RL (1952) Soil genesis and the pedogenic factors. Q Rev Biol 27: 139–168
Dancette C and Poulain JF (1969) Influence ofAcacia albida on pedoclimatic factors and crop yields. African Soils/Sols africains 14: 143–184
Depommier D, Janodet E and Oliver R (1992)Faidherbia albida parks and their influence on soils and crops at Watinoma, Burkina Faso. In: Vandenbelt RJ (ed)Faidherbia Albida in the West African Semi-Arid Tropics, pp 111–124. International Centre for Research in Agroforestry, Niamey, Niger
Everett R, Sharrow S and Thran D (1986) Soil nutrient distribution under and adjacent to single leaf pinyon crowns. Soil Sci Soc Am J 50: 788–792
Farrell J (1990) The influence of trees in selected agroecosystems in Mexico. In: Gliessman SR (ed) Agroecology: Researching the Ecological Basis for Sustainable Agriculture, pp 167–183. Springer-Verlag, New York
Felker P (1978) State of the Art:Acacia albida as a Complementary Permanent Intercrop with Annual Crops. Grant No. AID/ afr-C-1361, University of California, Riverside, CA, 133 pp
Fisher RF (1995) Amelioration of degraded rain forest soils by plantations of native trees. Soil Sci Soc Am J 59: 544–549
Galloway G (1986) Guia sobre la repoblacion forestal en la sierra ecuatoriana. Proyecto USAID-DINAF, Quinto, Ecuador, 291 pp
Garcia-Miragaya J, Flores S and Chacon N (1994) Soil chemical properties under individual evergreen and deciduous trees in a protected Venezuelan savanna. Acta Oecol 15(4): 477–484
Gast PR (1937) Contrasts between the soil profiles developed under pines and hardwoods. J For 35: 11–16
Geiger SC and Manu A (1993) Soil surface characteristics and variability in the growth of millet in the plateau and valley region of Western Niger. Agric Ecosyst Environ 45: 203–211
Geiger SC, Vandenbeldt RJ and Manu A (1994) Variability in the growth ofFaidherbia albida: the soils connection. Soil Sci Soc Am J 58: 277–231
Gersper PL and Holowaychuck N (1971) Some effects of stem flow from forest canopy trees on chemical properties of soils. Ecology 52: 691–702
Gijsbers HJM, Kessler JJ and Knevel MK (1994) Dynamics and natural regeneration of woody species in farmed parklands in the Sahel region (Province of Passore, Burkina Faso). For Ecol Manage 64: 1–12
Högberg P (1986) Soil nutrient availability, root symbiosis and tree species composition in tropical Africa: a review. J Trop Ecol 2: 359–372
Isichei AO and Muoghalu JI (1992) The effects of tree canopy cover on soil fertility in a Nigerian savanna. J Trop Ecol 8: 329–338
Jackson LE, Strauss RB, Firestone MK and Bartolome JW (1990) Influence of tree canopies on grassland productivity and nitrogen dynamics in deciduous oak savanna. Agriculture, Ecosyst Environ 32: 89–105
Jenny H (1941) Factors of Soil Formation. McGraw-Hill, New York, 281 pp
Jenny H (1980) The Soil Resource-Origin and Behavior. Springer-Verlag, New York, 377 pp
Kater LJM, Kante S and Budelman A (1992) Karite (Vitellaria paradoxa) and nere (Parkia biglobosa) associated with crops in South Mali. Agrofor Syst 18: 89–105
Kellman M (1979) Soil enrichment by neotropical savanna trees. J Ecolo 67: 565–577
Kerkhof P (1990) Agroforestry in Africa: A Survey of Project Experience. Panos Publications, London, 216 pp
Kessler JJ and Breman H (1991) The potential of agroforestry to increase primary production in the Sahelian and Sudanian zones of West Africa. Agrofor Syst 13: 41–62
Kessler JJ (1992) The influence of karite (Vitellaria paradoxa) and nere (Parkia biglobosa) trees on sorghum production in Burkina Faso. Agrofor Syst 17: 97–118
Klemmedson JO and barth RH (1975) Distribution and Balance of Biomass and Nutrients in Desert Shrub Ecosystems. US/IBP Desert Biome Research Memo 75-5, Utah State University, Logan, UT, 18 pp
Klemmedson JO and Wienhold BJ (1992) Aspect and species influences on nitrogen and phosphorus accumulation in Arizona chaparral soil-plant systems. Arid Soil Res Rehabilitation 6: 105–116
Lojan Idrobo L (1992) Arboles y arbustos nativos para le desarrollo forestal altoandino. Proyecto desarrollo forestal participativa en los andes, Quito, Ecuador, 217 pp
MacDicken KG and Vergara NT (1990) Agroforestry, Classification and Management. John Wiley and Sons, New York, 382 pp
Maghembe JA and Seyani JH (1991) Multipurpose trees used by smallholder farmers in Malawi: results from an ethnobotanical survey (AFRENA Report No. 42). International centre for Research in Agroforestry, Nairobi, Kenya, 30 pp
Mina VN (1967) Influence of stemflow on soil. Soviet Soil Sci 7: 1321–1329
Mordelet P, Abbadie L and Menaut JC (1993) Effects of tree clumps on soil characteristics in a humid savanna of West Africa (Lamto, Cote d' Ivoire). Plant and Soil 153: 103–111
Nair PKR (1984) Soil Productivity Aspects of Agroforestry. International Centre for Research in Agroforestry. Nairobi, Kenya, 85 pp
Okafor JC and Fernandes ECM (1987) The compound farms of south-eastern Nigeria: a predominant agroforestry homegarden system with crops and small livestock. Agrofore Syst 5: 153–168
Okorio J and Maghembe JA (1994) The growth and yield ofAcacia albida intercropped with maize (Zea mays) and beans (Phaseolus vulgaris) at Morogoro, Tanzania. For Ecol Manage 64: 183–190
Ovington JD (1954) Studies of the development of woodland conditions under different trees. II. The forest floor. J Ecol 42: 71–80
Ovington JD (1956) Studies of the development of woodland conditions under different trees. IV. The ignition loss, water, carbon and nitrogen content of the mineral soil. J Ecol 44: 171–17
Palm CA (1995) Contribution of agroforestry trees to nutrient requirements of intercropped plants. Agrofor Syst 30: 105–124
Parton WJ, Stewart JWB and Cole CV (1988) Dynamics of C, N, P and S in grassland soils: a model. Biogeochemistry 5: 109–131
Poschen P (1986) An evaluation of theAcacia albida-based agroforestry practices in the Hararghe highlands of eastern Ethiopia. Agrofor Syst 4: 129–143
Paulsen HA (1950) A comparison of surface soil properties under mesquite and perennial grass. Ecology 34: 727–732
Radwanski SA and Wickens GE (1967) The ecology ofAcacia albida on mantle soils in Zalingei, Jebel Marra, Sudan. J Appl Ecol 4: 569–579
Remezov NP and Pogrebnyak PS (1965) Forest Soil Science. Israel program for scientific translations, Jerusalem (1969). US Department of Commerce, Clearinghouse for Federal scientific and technical information, Springfield, MA, USA
Rhoades CC, Sanford Jr RL and Clark DB (1994) Gender dependant influences on soil phosphorus by the dioecious lowland tropical treeSimarouba amara. Biotropica 26: 362–368
Rhoades CC (1995) Seasonal patterns of nitrogen mineralization and soil moisture beneathFaidherbia albida (synAcacia albida) in central Malawi. Agrofor Syst 29: 133–145
Riha SJ, James BR, Senesac GP and Pallent E (1986) Spatial variability of soil pH and organic matter in forest plantations. Soil Sci Soc Am J 50: 1347–1352
Robertson GP and Gross KL (1994) Assessing the heterogeneity of belowground resources: quantifying pattern and scale. In: Caldwell MM and Pearcy RW (eds) Exploitation of Environmental Heterogeneity by Plants, pp 237–253. Academic Press, New York
Rocheleau D, Weber F and Field-Juma A (1988) Agroforestry in Dryland Africa. International Council for Research in Agroforestry, Nairobi, Kenya, 311 pp
Saka AR, Bunderson WT, Itimu OA, Phombeya HSK and Mbekeani Y (1994) The effects ofAcacia albida on soils and maize grain yields under smallholder farm conditions in Malawi. Agrofor Syst 64: 217–230
Sanchez PA (1995) Science in agroforestry. Agroforestry Systems 30: 5–55
Shankarnarayan KA, Harsh LN and Kathju S (1987) Agroforestry in the arid zones of India. Agrofor Syst 5: 69–88
Tiedemann AR and Klemmedson JO (1973a) Effect of mesquite on physical and chemical properties of the soil. J Range Manage 26: 27–29
Tiedemann AR and Klemmedson JO (1973b) Nutrient availability in desert grassland soils under mesquite (Prosopis juliflora) trees and adjacent open areas. Soil Sci Soc Am Procs 37: 107–111
Timmer LA, Kessler JJ and Slingerland M (1996) Pruning of nere trees (Parkia biglobosa (Jacq.) Benth.) on the farmlands of Burkina Faso, West Africa. Agrofor Syst 33: 87–98
Tinley KL (1982) The influence of soil moisture balance on ecosystem patterns in Southern Africa. In: Huntley BJ and Walker BH (eds) Ecology of Tropical Savannas, pp 175–192. Springer-Verlag, Berlin
Tomlinson H, Teklehaimanot Z, Traore A and Olapade E (1995) Soil amelioration and root symbioses ofParkia biglobosa (Jacq.) Benth. in West Africa. Agrofor Syst 30: 145–159
Vandenbelt RJ (ed) (1992)Faidherbia Albida in the West African Semi-Arid Tropics. ICRISAT, Patancheru, India, 206 pp
van Noordwijk M, Widianto, Heinen M and Hairiah M (1991) Old tree channels in acid soils the humid tropics: important for crop penetration, water infiltration and nitrogen management. Plant and Soil 134: 37–44
Virginia RA (1986) Soil development under legume tree canopies. For Ecol Manage 16: 69–79
Vitousek PM and Sanford RL Jr (1986) Nutrient cycling in moist tropical forest. Annual Rev Ecol Syst 17: 137–167
Weltzin JF and Coughenour MB (1990) Savanna tree influence on understory vegetation and soil nutrients in northwestern Kenya. J Veget Sci 1: 325–334
Wilson JR, Catchpoole VR and Weir KL (1986) Stimulation of growth and nitrogen uptake by shading a rundown green panic pasture in Brigalow clay soil. Trop Grassl 20: 134–144
Young A (1989) Agroforestry for Soil Conservation. CAB International, Wallingford, UK, 276 pp
Zinke PJ (1962) The pattern of influence of individual forest trees on soil properties. Ecology 43: 130–133
Zinke PJ and Crocker RL (1962) The influence of giant sequoia on soil properties. For Sci 8: 2–11
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Rhoades, C.C. Single-tree influences on soil properties in agroforestry: lessons from natural forest and savanna ecosystems. Agroforest Syst 35, 71–94 (1996). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02345330
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02345330