Skip to main content
Log in

Abstract

The purpose of this discussion is to explain and sharpen different points of view about the impact of media and attributes of media on learning, motivation and efficiency gains from instruction. This paper is an attempt to summarize my arguments about the research and theory in this area and to respond to Robert Kozma's criticism of my earlier discussion of these issues. I will first briefly summarize my arguments about media effects; next I will attempt to characterize the many reactions to the controversial claim that media do not influence learning or motivation. Finally, I will respond to the specific criticisms advanced by Robert Kozma this issue.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Clark, R. E. (1983). Reconsidering research on learning from media.Review of Educational Research, 53(4), 445–459.

    Google Scholar 

  • Clark, R. E. (1985a). Confounding in educational computing research.Journal of Educational Computing Research.1(2), 445–460.

    Google Scholar 

  • Clark, R. E. (1985b). The importance of treatment explication in computer-based instruction research.Journal of Educational Computing Research, 1(3), 389–394.

    Google Scholar 

  • Clark, R. E. (1985c). Evidence for confounding in computer-based instruction studies: Analyzing the meta analyses.Educational Communication and Technology Journal, 33(4).

  • Clark, R. E. (1986). Absolutes and angst in educational technology research: A reply to Don Cunningham.Educational Communication and Technology Journal, 34(1), 8–10.

    Google Scholar 

  • Clark, R. E. (1987). Which technology for what purpose. Paper presented at an invited symposium for the annual meeting of the Association for Educational Communication and Technology, Atlanta, GA.

  • Clark, R. E. & Salomon, G. (1986). Media in teaching. In M. Wittrock (Ed.),Handbook of Research on Teaching, Third Edition, New York: Macmillan.

    Google Scholar 

  • Clark, R. E. and Sugrue, B. M. (1988). Research on instructional media, 1978–1988. In D. Ely (Ed.),Educational Media Yearbook 1987–88. Littletown, CO: Libraries Unlimited.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cunningham, D. J. (1986). Good guys and bad guys.Educational Communication and Technology Journal, 34(1), 3–7.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gick, M. & Holyoak, K, (1987). Cognitive Basis of Knowledge Transfer, In S.M. Cormier and S. D. Hagman (Eds.),Transfer of Learning. NY: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kozma, R. B. (1991). Learning with media.Review of Educational Research, 61(2), 179–212.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kozma, R. B. (1993). Will media influence learning? Reframing the debate. Paper presented at the International Meeting of the EARLI, Aix en Provence, September 1993.

  • Kozma, R. B. (1994). Will media influence learning? Reframing the debate.Educational Technology Research & Development, 42(2), 7–19.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kulik, J. A. (1985). The importance of outcome studies: A reply to Clark.Educational Communications and Technology Journal, 34(1), 381–386.

    Google Scholar 

  • Levie, W.H. & Dickie, K.E. (1973). The analysis and application of media. In Travers, R.M.W. (Ed.),Second Handbook of Research on Teaching, Chicago: Rand McNally.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lumsdaine, A. A. (1963). Instruments and Media of Instruction. In N. Gage (Ed.),Handbook of Research on Teaching, Chicago: Rand McNally.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mielke, K. W. (1968). Questioning the questions of ETV research.Educational Broadcasting Review, 2, 6–15.

    Google Scholar 

  • Petkovich, M. D. & Tennyson, R. (1984). Clark's “Learning from media”: A critique.Educational Communications and Technology Journal, 32(4), 233–241.

    Google Scholar 

  • Salomon, G (1979),Interaction of media, cognition and learning. San Francisco: Jossey Bass.

    Google Scholar 

  • Salomon, G. (1984). Television is easy and print is “tough”: The differential investment of mental effort in learning as a function of perceptions and attributions.Journal of Educational Psychology, 76(4), 647–658.

    Google Scholar 

  • Salomon, G., Perkins, D. N., and Globerson, T. (1991). Partners in cognition: Extending human intelligence with intelligent technologies.Educational Researcher, 20(2), 2–9.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schramm, W. (1977).Big media, little media. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage Publications.

    Google Scholar 

  • Winn, W. (1990). Media and instructional methods. In R. Ganisan, and D. Shue (Eds.),Education at a Distance. Malabu, FL: Krieger.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Additional information

This article is based in part on a debate between the author and Robert Kozma at the 1993 international convention of The European Association for Research on Learning and Instruction at Aix en Provence, France, September 4, 1993, and on a February 1991 Article by the author inEducational Technology titled “When Researchers Swim Upstream:Reflections on an Unpopular Argument About Learning From Media” (pp. 34–40).

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Clark, R.E. Media will never influence learning. ETR&D 42, 21–29 (1994). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02299088

Download citation

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02299088

Keywords

Navigation