Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

The sulfide system: a new biotic community underneath the oxidized layer of marine sand bottoms

  • Published:
Marine Biology Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

A complex ecosystem of anaerobic and microaerobic properties underlies the oxidized surface layer of all marine sandy bottoms, with the exception of narrow “high-energy windows”. Investigations made on both sides of the Atlantic Ocean, by T. Fenchel in Danish waters, and by R. Riedl and collaborators mainly in US (North Carolinian) waters; involve quantitative studies of plants, ciliates and invertebrates, measurements of chemical and physical parameters, systematics, physiological and model experiments.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Similar content being viewed by others

Literature cited

  • Alsterberg, G.: Die respiratorischen Mechanismen der Tubificiden. Acta Univ. lund. (Lunds Univ. Arsskr.) N F Avd. 2, 18 (1), 175 pp. (1922).

  • Andreev, P. F., A. I. Bogomolov, A. F. Dobryanskii and A. A. Kartsev: Transformation of petroleum in nature, pp 14–15. Oxford: Pergamon Press 1968.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ax, P.: Relationships and phylogeny of the turbellarian. In: The lower metazoa, pp 191–225. Ed. by E. Dougherty. Los Angeles: University of California Press 1963.

    Google Scholar 

  • —: Die Bedeutung der interstitiellen Sandfauna für allgemeine Probleme der Systematik, Ökologie und Biologie. Veröff. Inst. Meeresforsch. Bremerh. 2, 15–16 (1966).

    Google Scholar 

  • Baas-Becking, L. G., I. R. Kaplan and D. Moore: Limits of the natural environment in terms of pH and oxidation-reduction potentials. J. Geol. 68, 243–284 (1960).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • —, and E. J. Wood: Biological processes in the estuarine environment. Vol. 1–2. Ecology of the sulphur cycle. Proc. K. ned. Akad. Wet. (Sect. B) 59, 109–123 (1955).

    Google Scholar 

  • Batten, R. W.: The sediments of the Beaufort Inlet area, North Carolina. South. Geol. 3, 101–205 (1962).

    Google Scholar 

  • Berkner, L. V. and L. C. Marshall: The history of growth of oxygen in the earth's atmosphere. In: The origin and evolution of atmospheres and oceans, pp 102–127. Ed. by P. J. Brancazio and A. G. Cameron. New York: Wiley and Sons 1964.

    Google Scholar 

  • Berner, R. A.: Diagenesis of iron sulfide in recent marine sediments. In: Estuaries, pp 268–272. Ed. by G. H. Lauff. Washington, D. C.: Publ. Am. Ass. Advmt Sci. 83, 1967.

  • Bick, H.: Die Sukzession der Organismen bei Selbstreinigung von organisch verunreinigtem Wasser unter verschiedenen Milieubedingungen, 139 pp. Düsseldorf: Min. ELF des Landes Nordrhein/Westfalen 1964.

    Google Scholar 

  • Biggs, R. B.: The sediments of Chesapeake Bay. In: Estuaries, pp 239–260. Ed. by G. H. Lauff. Washington, D. C.: Publ. Am. Ass. Advmt Sci. 83, 1967.

  • Brafield, A. E.: Oxygen in sandy shores: J. Anim. Ecol. 33, 97–116 (1964).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • —: Quelques facteurs affectant la teneur en oxygène des eaux interstielles littorales: Vie Milieu 16, 880–897 (1965).

    Google Scholar 

  • Brett, C. E.: Some sedimentary, hydrographic and faunal aspects of Bogue Sound, North Carolina, and their paleoecological significance. Thesis, University of North Carolina 1963.

  • Chitwood, B. G.: Some marine nematodes from North Carolina: Proc. helminth. Soc. Wash. 3, 1–16 (1936).

    Google Scholar 

  • Dietrich, R., W. Hoehnk and W.-D. Manzel: Studien zur Chemie ozeanischer Bodenproben. III. Veröff. Inst. Meeresforsch. Bremerh. 9, 242–278 (1965).

    Google Scholar 

  • Durden, C. J., J. Rodgers, E. L. Yochelson and R. J. Riedl: Gnathostomulida: Is there a fossil record?: Science, N. Y. 164, 855–856 (1969).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Emery, K. O. and K. C. Rittenberg: Early diagenesis of California Basin sediments in relation to the origin of oil. Bull. Am. Ass. Petrol. Geol. 36, 735–806 (1952).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Fairbridge, R. W.: Phases of diagenesis and autogenesis. In: Diagenesis of sediments (Developments in sedimentology 8), pp 19–89. Ed. by G. Larsen and G. V. Chilingar. New York: Elsevier 1967.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Fauré-Fremiet, E.: Caulobactéries épizoïques associées aux Centrophorella (ciliés holotriches). Bull. Soc. zool. Fr. 75, 134–137 (1950).

    Google Scholar 

  • Fenchel, T.: The ecology of marine microbenthos IV: Ophelia 6, 1–182 (1969).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fenchel, T.: The reduction-oxidation properties of marine sediments and the vertical distribution of the microfauna: Proceedings 3rd European Marine Biological Symposium, Arcachon 1968. (1970). (In press).

  • — and B.-O. Jansson: On the vertical distribution of the microfauna in the sediments of a brackish-water beach: Ophelia 3, 161–177 (1966).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gerlach, S. A.: Über einige Nematoden aus der Familie der Desmodoriden. In: Neue Ergebnisse und Probleme der Zoologie. Zool. Anz. 145 (Erg. Bd Klatt-Festschrift) 178–198 (1950).

  • —: Freilebende Nematoden aus dem Roten Meer: Kieler Meeresforsch. 20, 18–34 (1964).

    Google Scholar 

  • Gordon, M. S.: Anaerobiosis in marine sandy beaches: Science, N.Y. 132, 616–617 (1960).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Graebner, I.: Erste Befunde über die Feinstruktur der Exkretionszellen der Gnathostomulida (Gnathostomula paradoxa, Ax 1956 und Austrognathia riedli, Sterrer 1965): Mikroskopie 23, 277–292 (1968).

    Google Scholar 

  • —: Vergleichende elektronenmikroskopische Untersuchung der Spermienmorphologie und Spermiogenese einiger Gnathostomula-Arten: Gnathostomula paradoxa (Ax 1956), Gnathostomula axi (Kirsteuer 1964), Gnathostomula jenneri (Riedl 1969): Mikroskopie 24, 131–160 (1969).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Grote, A.: Der Sauerstoffhaushalt der Seen. In: Die Binnengewässer, 217 pp. Ed. by A. Thienemann. Stuttgart: Schweizerbart, 1934.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hallberg, R. O.: Some factors of significance in the formation of sedimentary metal sulfides: Stockh. Contr. Geol. 15, 39–66 (1968).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hutchinson, G. E.: A treatise on limnology. Vol. 1. Geography, physics and chemistry, 1015 pp. New York: J. Wiley & Sons 1957.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ivanov, M. V.: Microbiological processes in the formation of sulfur deposits, 298 pp. Jerusalem: Israel Program for Scientific Translations 1968.

    Google Scholar 

  • Johnson, T. W., Jr. and F. K. Sparrow, Jr.: Fungi in oceans and estuaries, 668 pp. Weinheim: J. Cramer 1961.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kanwisher, J.: Gas exchange of shallow marine sediments. In: The environmental chemistry of marine sediments, pp. 12–19. Ed. by N. Marshall. Rhode Island: University of Rhode Island Occasional Publication No. 1, 1962.

    Google Scholar 

  • Keosian, J.: The origin of life, 118 pp. New York: Reinhold Publ. 1967.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kimball, J. F. Jr., E. F. Corcoran and E. J. Wood: Chlorophyll containing micro-organisms in the aphotic zone of the oceans: Bull. mar. Sci. 13, 574–577 (1963).

    Google Scholar 

  • Kirsteuer, E.: Eine neue Gnathostomulide aus der Mangroveregion des Archipels Los Roques, Venezuela: Zool. Anz. 172, 436–440 (1964).

    Google Scholar 

  • — On some species of Gnathostomulida from Bimini, Bahamas: Am. Mus. Novit. 2356, 1–21 (1969).

    Google Scholar 

  • Kirsteuer, E.: On some species of meiobenthic worms of the class Gnathostomulida from Barbados, W. I.: Am. Mus. Novit. (1970). (In press).

  • Kohlmeyer, J.: Ecological observations on arenicolous marine fungi: Z. allg. Mikrobiol. 6, 95–106 (1966).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Krumbein, W. C. and R. M. Garrels: Origin and classification of chemical sediments in terms of pH and oxidation-reduction potentials: J. Geol. 60, 1–33 (1952).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kuznetsov, S. I.: Microflora of lakes and its geochemical activity, 440 pp. Leningrad: Akad. Nauk. SSSR 1970.

    Google Scholar 

  • Linnane, A. W., E. Vitols and P. G. Nowland: Studies on the origin of yeast mitochondria: J. Cell Biol. 13, 345–350 (1962).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lönnerblad, G.: Über die Sauerstoffabsorption des Bodensubstrates in einigen Seentypen: Bot. Notiser. 1930, 53–60 (1930).

    Google Scholar 

  • Mortimer, C. H.: The exchange of dissolved substances between mud and water in lakes: J. Ecol. 29, 280–329 (1941).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • — The exchange of dissolved substances between mud and water in lakes II: J. Ecol. 30, 147–201 (1942).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Nelson, B. W.: Important aspects of estuarine sediment chemistry for benthic ecology. In: The environmental chemistry of marine sediments. Ed. by N. Marshall. Rhode Island: University of Rhode Island. Occasional Publication No. 1, 1962.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nikitinsky, J. and F. Mudrezowa-Wyss: Über die Wirkung der Kohlensäure, des Schwefelwasserstoffs, des Methans und der Abwesenheit des Sauerstoffs auf Wasserorganismen: Zentbl. Bakt. Parasitkde, 2 Abt. 81, 167–198 (1930).

    Google Scholar 

  • Noland, L. E. and M. Gojdics: Ecology of free-living protozoa. In: Research in protozoology 2, pp 215–266. Ed. by Tze-Tuan Chen. Oxford: Pergamon Press 1967.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ochietti, S. et A. Cailleux: Comparaison des conodontes et des mâchoires de gnathostomulides: C. r. hebd. Séanc. Acad. Sci., Paris 268, 2664–2666 (1969).

    Google Scholar 

  • Oparin, A. I.: The origin of life on the Earth, 495 pp. New York: Academic Press 1957.

    Google Scholar 

  • Perkins, E. J.: The food relationships of the microbenthos, with particular reference to that found at Whitstable, Kent: Ann. Mag. nat. Hist. 13, 64–77 (1958).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pickett, T. E.: The modern sediments of Pamlico Sound North Carolina. Thesis, University of North Carolina 1965.

  • Por, F. D. and D. Masry: Survival of a nematode and an oligochaete species in the anaerobic benthal of Lake Tiberias. Oikos 19, 388–391 (1968).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Remane, A.: Die Besiedelung des Sandbodens im Meere und die Bedeutung der Lebensformtypen für die Ökologie. Zool. Anz. (Suppl.). (Verh. dt. zool. Ges., Wilhelmshaven, 1951) 16, 327–359 (1952).

    Google Scholar 

  • Riedl, R. J.: Methoden und Probleme der Erforschung des litoralen Benthos. Zool. Anz. 26, 505–567 (1963).

    Google Scholar 

  • — Biologie der Meereshöhlen, 636 pp. Berlin: Paul Parey 1966.

    Google Scholar 

  • —: Faunistische Studien am Roten Meer im Winter 1961/62, III. Die Aufsammlungen in Suez und Al-Ghardaqa, nebst einigen Bemerkungen über Gnathostomulida: Zool. Jb. Syst. 93, 139–157 (1966–1967).

    Google Scholar 

  • —: Gnathostomulida from America, first record of the new phylum from North America. Science, N. Y. 163, 445–452 (1969).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Riedl, R. J.: Semaeognathia, a genus of Gnathostomulida from American coasts: Int. Revue ges. Hydrobiol. (1970a). (In press).

  • Riedl, R. J.: On Labidognathia longicollis nov. gen. nov. spec. from the West Atlantic Coast: Int. Revue ges. Hydrobiol. (1970b).

  • Riedl, R. J.: On Onychognathia, a new genus of Gnathostomulida from the tropical and subtropical West Atlantic: Bull. mar. Sci. (1970c). (In press).

  • Riedl, R. J.: On the genus Gnathostomula. Int. Revue ges. Hydrobiol. (1970d). (In press).

  • Riedl, R. J. and E. A. McMahan: High energy beaches. In: Coastal ecological systems of the United States, pp 197–268. Ed. by H. T. Odum 1970. (In press).

  • Riedl, R. J. and J. A. Ott: A new suction-corer to yield electric potentials in coastal sediment layers. Senckenberg. marit. 1970. (In press).

  • Smith, P. V.: The origin of petroleum; occurence of hydrocarbons in recent sediments. Bull. Am. Ass. Petrol. Geol. 38, 377–404 (1954).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sokolova, G. A. and G. I. Karavaiko: Physiology and geochemical activity of Thiobacilli, 238 pp. Jerusalem: Israel Program for Scientific Translations 1968.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sorokin, J. I.: On the trophic role of chemosynthesis and bacterial biosynthesis in water bodies. Memorie Ist. ital Idrobiol. (Suppl.) 18, 187–205 (1965).

    Google Scholar 

  • —: On the primary production and bacterial activities in the Black Sea. J. Cons. int. Explor. Mer 25, 41–60 (1969).

    Google Scholar 

  • Stanier, R. Y., M. Doudoroff and E. A. Adelberg: The microbial world, 753 pp. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall 1963.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sterrer, W.: Gnathostomula axi Kirsteuer und Austrognathia (einweiteres Gnathostomuliden-Genus) aus der Nordadria. Z. Morph. Tiere 55, 783–795 (1965).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • —: New polylithophorous marine Turbellaria. Nature, Lond. 210, 436 (1966a).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • —: Gnathostomula paradoxa Ax und Vertreter von Pterognathia (ein neues Gnathostomuliden-Genus) von der schwedischen Westküste. Ark. Zool. 18, 405–412 (1966b).

    Google Scholar 

  • —: Neue Gnathostomulida. Veröff. Inst. Meeresforsch. Bremerh. 2, 201–207 (1966c).

    Google Scholar 

  • Sterrer, W.: On some species of Austrognatharia, Pterognathia, and Haplognathia nov. gen. from the North Carolina coast (Gnathostomulida). Int. Revue ges. Hydrobiol. (1970a). (In press).

  • Sterrer, W.: Agnathiella beckeri nov. gen. nov. spec. from southern Florida: the first gnathostomulid without jaws. Bull. mar. Sci. (1970b). (In press).

  • Sterrer, W.: On Nanognathia, a new gnathostomulid genus from the east coast of the United States. Int. Revue ges. Hydrobiol. (1970c). (In press).

  • Sterrer, W.: On the biology of Gnathostomulida. Proceedings 3rd European Marine Biological Symposium, Arcachon 1968. (1970d). (In press).

  • Strakhov, N. M., N. G. Brodskaya, L. M. Knyazeva, A. N. Razzhivina, M. S. Rateev, D. G. Sapozhnikov and E. S. Shishova: Formation of sediments in recent basins, 791 p. Moscow: Akad. Nauk SSSR 1954.

    Google Scholar 

  • Swedmark, B.: The interstitial fauna of marine sand: Biol. Rev. 39, 1–42 (1964).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Thane-Fenchel, A.: The ecology and distribution of nonplanktonic brackishwater rotifers from Scandinavian waters. Ophelia 5, 273–297 (1968).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Theede, H., A. Ponat, K. Hiroki and C. Schlieper: Studies on the resistance of marine bottom invertebrates to oxygen deficiency and hydrogen sulfide. Mar. Biol. 2, 325–337 (1969).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Urey, H. C.: The planets, 245 pp. New Haven. Yale Univ. Press 1952.

    Google Scholar 

  • Westheide, W.: Zur quantitativen Verteilung von Bakterien und Hefen in einem Gezeitenstrand der Nordseeküste. Mar. Biol. 1, 336–347 (1968).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Whitfield, M.: Eh as an operational parameter in estuarine studies. Limnol. Oceanogr. 14, 547–558 (1969).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Whittaker, R. J.: New concepts of kingdoms of organisms. Science, N.Y. 163, 150–160 (1969).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wieser, W.: Eine ungewöhnliche Association zwischen Blaualgen und freilebenden marinen Nematoden. Öst. bot. Z. 106, 81–87 (1959).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • — and J. Kanwisher: Respiration and anaerobic survival in some seaweed-inhabiting invertebrates. Biol. Bull. mar. biol. Lab., Woods Hole. 117, 594–600 (1959).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • — and J. Kanwisher: Ecological and physiological studies on marine nematodes from a small salt marsh near Woods Hole, Massachusetts. Limnol. Oceanogr. 6, 262–270 (1961).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wood, E. J. F.: A study of the diatom flora of fresh sediments of the South Texas Bays and adjacent waters. Publs. Inst. mar. Sci. Univ. Tex. 9, 237–310 (1963).

    Google Scholar 

  • —: Marine microbial ecology, 243 pp. London: Chapman and Hall Ltd 1965.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zobell, C. E.: Studies on the bacterial flora of marine bottom deposits. J. sedim. Petrol. 8, 10–18 (1938).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • —: Studies in redox potential of marine sediments. Bull Am. Ass. Petrol. Geol. 30, 477–513 (1946).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • —: Microbiology of oil. Inf. Ser. Dep. scient. ind. Res. N.Z. 22, 39–47 (1959).

    Google Scholar 

  • — and D. O. Andfrson: Vertical distribution of bacteria in marine sediments. Bull. Am. Ass. Petrol. Geol. 20, 258–269 (1936).

    Google Scholar 

  • — and C. B. Feltham: Preliminary studies on the distribution and characteristics of marine bacteria. Bull. Scripps Instn Oceanogr. (Tech. Ser.) 3, 279–295 (1934).

    Google Scholar 

  • — and S. E. Rittenberg: Sulfate-reducing bacteria in marine sediments. J. mar. Res. 7, 602–617 (1948).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Author notes

  1. T. M. Fenchel

    Present address: Laboratory of Ecology, Zoological Institute, University of Aarhus, Århus C, Denmark

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Zoology, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA

    R. J. Riedl

  2. Institute of Marine Sciences, Morehead City, North Carolina, USA

    R. J. Riedl

Authors
  1. T. M. Fenchel
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. R. J. Riedl
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Additional information

Communicated by B. Swedmark, Fiskebäckskil

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Fenchel, T.M., Riedl, R.J. The sulfide system: a new biotic community underneath the oxidized layer of marine sand bottoms. Marine Biology 7, 255–268 (1970). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00367496

Download citation

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00367496

Keywords

Search

Navigation