Skip to main content
Log in

Defense against parasites by hitchhikers in leaf-cutting ants: a quantitative assessment

Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Summary

A curious behavior in leaf-cutting ants in the genus Atta is the “hitchhiking” of small minim workers on leaf fragments carried by larger workers. Two functions of these hitchhikers have been proposed: (1) defense of leaf carriers against parasitic flies in the family Phoridae (ant protection hypothesis; Eibl-Eibesfeldt and Eibl-Eibesfeldt 1967) and (2) reduction of transport costs of small minims that collect plant fluids (energy conservation hypothesis; Stradling 1978).

We studied hitchhiking behavior in colonies of Atta colombica on Barro Colorado Island, Panama, and found strong evidence in favor of the ant protection hypothesis. Females of Apocephalus attophilus (Diptera: Phoridae) attack leaf carriers of A. colombica and deposit eggs in the head capsules of these ants. Our observations indicate that parasites require leaf fragments to stand on during oviposition, and, as a result, only leaf carriers are susceptible to parasitic attack. The presence of hitchhikers reduces significantly both the time parasites spend on leaf fragments and the probability that they will land in the first place. Results of experimental introductions of parasites and a year of biweekly censuses at ten colonies indicate that leaf-cutting ants adjust the level of hitchhiking to accommodate both daily and seasonal changes in the abundance of parasites.

We found little evidence in support of the energy conservation hypothesis. If it is assumed that all minim workers hitchhike back to the nest, our calculations indicate that total transport costs along a foraging trail are reduced by 10% or less. However, our observations indicate that only 50% of returning minim workers hitchhike, and therefore energy savings are actually considerably less than 10%. Leaf-cutting ants in the genera Atta and Acromyrmex are attacked by over 20 species of parasitic phorids. In the discussion we review what is known about these associations and suggest that these parasites have influenced the ecology and evolution of polyethism in leaf-cutting ants.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Baumann E (1979) Rennfliegen aus dem Senckenberg-Museum (Insecta: Diptera: Phoridae). Senckenb Biol 59:365–367

    Google Scholar 

  • Belt T (1874) The naturalist in Nicaragua. Dent and Sons, London

    Google Scholar 

  • Borgmeier T (1925) Novos subsidios para o conhecimento da familia Phoridae. Arch Mus Nac (Rio de Janeiro) 25:85–281

    Google Scholar 

  • Borgmeier T (1928) Nota previa sobre alguns phorideos que parasitam formigas cortadeiras dos generos Atta e Acromyrmex. Bol Biol (São Paulo) 14:119–126

    Google Scholar 

  • Borgmeier T (1929) Über attophile Phoriden. Zool Anz 82:493–517

    Google Scholar 

  • Borgmeier T (1931) Sobre alguns phorideos que parasitam a saúva e outras formigas cortadeiras (Diptera, Phoridae). Arch Inst Biol (São Paulo) 4:209–228

    Google Scholar 

  • Borgmeier T (1963) Revision of the North American Phorid flies. Part I: The Phorinae, Aenigmatiinae and Metopininae, except Megaselia (Diptera: Phoridae). Stud Entomol 6:1–256

    Google Scholar 

  • Borgmeier T (1968) A catalogue of the Phoridae of the world (Diptera, Phoridae). Stud Entomol 11:1–367

    Google Scholar 

  • Borgmeier T (1971) Supplement to A Catalogue of the Phoridae of the World (Diptera, Phoridae). Stud Entomol 14:177–224

    Google Scholar 

  • Brown BV (1988) Additions to the period chapter in the “Manual of Nearctic Diptera, Volume 2” (Diptera: Phoridae). Can Entomol 120:307–322

    Google Scholar 

  • Cherrett JM (1968) The foraging behavior of Atta cephalotes (L.) (Hymenoptera, Formicidae). I. Foraging pattern and plant species attacked in tropical rain forest. J Anim Ecol 37:387–403

    Google Scholar 

  • Cherrett JM (1972) Some factors involved in the selection of vegetable substrate by Atta cephalotes (L.) (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) in tropical rain forest. J Anim Ecol 41:647–660

    Google Scholar 

  • Disney RHL (1980) A new species of Apocephalus (Diptera: Phoridae) that parasitizes Atta texana (Hymenoptera: Formicidae). Z Angew Zool 67:47–50

    Google Scholar 

  • Eibl-Eibesfeldt I, Eibl-Eibesfeldt E (1967) Das Parasitenabwehren der Minima-Arbeiterinnen der Blattschneider-Ameise (Atta cephalotes). Z Tierpsychol 24:278–281

    Google Scholar 

  • Feener DH Jr (1981) Competition between ant species: outcome controlled by parasitic flies. Science 214:815–817

    Google Scholar 

  • Feener DH Jr (1988) Effects of parasites on foraging and defense behavior of a termitophagous ant, Pheidole titanis wheeler (Hymenoptera: Formicidae). Behav Ecol Sociobiol 22:421–427

    Google Scholar 

  • Foresti L, Pereira da Silva V (1970) Nota sôbre a ocorrência de um fórideo parasito de formigas saúvas (Diptera, Phoridae). Ciênc Cult 22 (Supl): 287

    Google Scholar 

  • Greene CT (1938) A new genus and two new species of the dipterous family Phoridae. Proc US Natl Mus 85:181–185

    Google Scholar 

  • Haines BL (1978) Element and energy flows through colonies of the leaf-cutting ant Atta colombica, in Panama. Biotropica 10:270–277

    Google Scholar 

  • Kempf WW (1972) Catálogo abreviado das formigas da Ragião Neotropical (Hymenoptera: Formicidae). Stud Entomol 15: 3–344

    Google Scholar 

  • Lewis T, Pollard GV, Dibley, GC (1974) Rhythmic foraging in the leaf-cutting ant Atta cephalotes (L.) (Formicidae: Attini). J Anim Ecol 43:129–141

    Google Scholar 

  • Lighton JRB, Bartholomew GA, Feener DH Jr (1987) Energetics of locomotion and load carriage and a model of the energy cost of foraging in the leaf-cutting ant Atta colombica Guer. Physiol Zool 60:524–537

    Google Scholar 

  • Lugo AF, Farnworth EG, Pool D, Jerez P, Kaufman G (1973) The impact of the leaf cutter ant Atta colombica on the energy flow of a tropical wet forest. Ecology 54:1292–1301

    Google Scholar 

  • Piffer CR, Lello E, Toledo LA, Foresti F (1972) Considerações sobre o parasitismo de Apocephalus attophilus (Diptera: Phoridae) em saúva (Hymenoptera: Formicidae). Ciênc Cult 24 (Supl): 348–349

    Google Scholar 

  • Pires do Prado A (1976) Records and descriptions of phorid flies, mainly of the Neotropical Region (Diptera: Phoridae). Stud Entomol 19:561–609

    Google Scholar 

  • Rockwood LL (1975) The effects of seasonality on foraging in two species of leaf-cutting ants (Atta) in Guanacaste Province, Costa Rica. Biotropica 7:176–193

    Google Scholar 

  • Stradling DJ (1978) The influence of size on foraging in the ant, Atta cephalotes, and the effect of some plant defense mechanisms. J Anim Ecol 47:173–188

    Google Scholar 

  • Weber NA (1972) Gardening ants: the attines. Mem Am Philos Soc 92:1–146

    Google Scholar 

  • Wilkerson L (1986) SYSTAT: the system for statistics. SYSTAT Inc., Evanston

    Google Scholar 

  • Wilson EO (1971) The insect societies. Harvard University Press, Cambridge

    Google Scholar 

  • Wilson EO (1980a) Caste and division of labor in leaf-cutter ants (Hymenoptera: Formicidae: Atta). I. The overall pattern in A. sexdens. Behav Ecol Sociobiol 7:143–156

    Google Scholar 

  • Wilson EO (1980b) Caste and division of labor in leaf-cutter ants (Hymenoptera: Formicidae: Atta). II. The ergonomic optimization of leaf cutting. Behav Ecol Sociobiol 7:143–156

    Google Scholar 

  • Winer BJ (1971) Statistical principles in experimental design. 2nd Ed. McGraw-Hill, New York

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Additional information

Offprint requests to: D.H. Feener (at his present address)

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Feener, D.H., Moss, K.A. Defense against parasites by hitchhikers in leaf-cutting ants: a quantitative assessment. Behav Ecol Sociobiol 26, 17–29 (1990). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00174021

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00174021

Keywords

Navigation