Abstract
Children born with a possible predisposition toward shyness face many social challenges. Researchers over the past four decades have begun to identify specific factors that influence shy children’s social skill development and their level of peer acceptance. The purpose of this article is to review factors across each developmental stage that have been found to either promote or hinder the development of social competence and peer acceptance in shy children. These factors include physiological differences, caregiver influences, emotion socialization, friendships, general peer support, coping skills, organized social activities, and socioeconomic status.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Aikins, J. W., Bierman, K. L., & Parker, J. G. (2005). Navigating the transition to junior high school: The influence of pre-transition friendship and self-system characteristics. Social Development, 14, 42–60.
Asendorpf, J. B. (1990). Development of inhibition during childhood: Evidence for situational specificity and a two-factor model. Developmental Psychology, 26(5), 721–730.
Bagwell, C. L., Newcomb, A. F., & Bukowski, W. M. (1998). Preadolescent friendship and peer rejection as predictors of adult adjustment. Child Development, 69, 140–153.
Berg, M., & Medrich, E. A. (1980). Children in four neighbourhoods: Physical environment and its effect on play and play patterns. Environment and Behavior, 12, 320–348.
Berndt, T. J. (2002). Friendship quality and social development. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 11, 7–10.
Berndt, T. J., & Keefe, K. (1995). Friends’ influence on adolescents’ adjustment to school. Child Development, 66, 1312–1329.
Bronson, G. W. (1978). Aversive reactions to strangers: A dual process interpretation. Child Development, 49, 495–499.
Bukowski, W. M., & Adams, R. (2005). Peer relationships and psychopathology: Markers, moderators, mediators, mechanisms, and meanings. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 34, 3–10.
Bullock, J. R. (1992). Children without friends: Who are they and how can teachers help? Childhood Education, 69, 92–96.
Buss, A. H. (1980). Self-consciousness and social anxiety. San Francisco: W. H. Freeman.
Buss, A. H., & Plomin, R. (1975). A temperament theory of personality development. In K. MacCorquodale (Ed.), Wiley series in behavior (pp. 88–121). New York: John Wiley and Sons.
Buzzelli, C. A. (1988). The development of trust in children’s relations with peers. Child Study Journal, 18, 33–46.
Caspi, A., Elder, G. H. Jr., & Bem, D. J. (1988). Moving away from the world: Life-course patterns of shy children. Developmental Psychology, 24(6), 824–831.
Causey, D. L., & Dubow, E. F. (1992). Development of a self-report coping measure for elementary school children. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 2(1), 47–59.
Cheek, J. M., & Buss, A. H. (1981). Shyness and sociability. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 41(2), 330–339.
Cheek, J. M., Carpentieri, A. M., Smith, G. M., Rierdan, J., & Koff, E. (1985). Adolescent shyness. In W. H. Jones, J. M. Cheek, & S. R. Briggs (Eds.), Shyness: Perspectives on theory and research (pp. 105–115). New York: Plenum Press.
Cheek, J. M., & Melchior, L. A. (1990). Shyness, self-esteem, and self-consciousness. In H. Leitenberg (Ed.), Handbook of social and evaluation anxiety (pp. 47–82). New York: Plenum Press.
Coie, J. D., Dodge, K. A., & Coppotelli, H. (1982). Dimensions and types of social status: A cross-age perspective. Developmental Psychology, 18(4), 557–570.
Compas, B. E. (1987). Coping with stress during childhood and adolescence. Psychological Bulletin, 101(3), 393–403.
Conger, R., Conger, K. J., Elder, G. H., Lorenz, F. O., Simons, R. L., & Whitbeck, L. B. (1993). Family economic stress and adjustment of early adolescent girls. Developmental Psychology, 29, 206–219.
Coplan, R. J., Prakash, K., O’Neil, K., & Armer, M. (2004). Do you “want” to play? Distinguishing between conflicted shyness and social disinterest in early childhood. Developmental Psychology, 40(2), 244–258.
Cotterell, J. L. (1986). Work and community influences and the quality of child rearing. Child Development, 61, 874–892.
Daniels, D., & Plomin, R. (1985). Origins of individual differences in infant shyness. Developmental Psychology, 21(1), 118–121.
Denham, S. A., Zoller, D., & Couchoud, E. A. (1994). Socialization of preschoolers’ emotion understanding. Developmental Psychology, 30(6), 928–936.
Denham, S., Salisch, M. V., Olthof, T., Kochanoff, A., & Caverly, S. (2002). Emotional and social development in childhood. In P. K. Smith & C. H. Hart (Eds.), Blackwell handbook of childhood social development (pp. 308–328). Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing.
Dishion, T. J. (1990). The family ecology of boys’ peer relations in middle childhood. Child Development, 61, 874–892.
Dougherty, L. R. (2006). Children’s emotionality and social status: A meta-analytic review. Social Development, 15(3), 394–417.
Endler, N. S., & Parker, J. D. A. (1990). Coping inventory for stressful situations (CISS): Manual. Toronto, ON: Multi-Health Systems.
Fabes, R., Eisenberg, N., Hanish, L., & Spinrad, T. (2001). Preschoolers’ spontaneous emotion vocabulary: Links to likability. Early Education and Development, 12, 11–27.
Fenigstein, A., Scheier, M., & Buss, A. H. (1975). Public and private self-consciousness: Assessment and theory. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 43, 522–527.
Fenzel, L. M. (2000). Prospective study of changes in global self-worth and strain during the transition to middle school. Journal of Early Adolescence, 20, 93–116.
Findlay, L. C. (2007, March). Sports participation as a protective factor for shyness in childhood. Paper symposium presented at the annual meeting of the Society for Research on Child Development, Boston, MA.
Findlay, L. C., Coplan, R. J., & Bowker, A. (2007, March). Keeping it all inside: Shyness, internalizing coping strategies and socio-emotional adjustment in middle childhood. Poster session presented at the annual meeting of the Society for Research on Child Development, Boston, MA.
Ford, D. H., & Lerner, R. M. (1992). Developmental systems theory: An integrative approach. Newberry Park: Sage.
Fox, N. A., & Calkins, S. D. (1993). Pathways to aggression and social withdrawal: Interactions among temperament, attachment, and regulation. In K. H. Rubin, & J. B. Asendorpf (Eds.), Social withdrawal, inhibition, and shyness in childhood (pp. 81–100). Hillsdale, NJ, England: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
Gazelle, H., & Ladd, G. W. (2003). Anxious solitude and peer exclusion: A diathesis-stress model of internalizing trajectories in childhood. Child Development, 74, 257–278.
Gazelle, H., & Rudolph, K. D. (2004). Moving toward and away from the world: Social approach and avoidance trajectories in anxious solitary youth. Child Development, 75, 829–849.
Halford, K., & Foddy, M. (1982). Cognitive and social skills correlates of social anxiety. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 21(1), 17–28.
Harter, S. (1982). The perceived competence scale for children. Child Development, 53, 87–97.
Harter, S. (1999). The construction of the self: A developmental perspective. New York: Guilford Press.
Hartup, W. W., & Stevens, N. (1997). Friendships and adaptation in the life course. Psychological Bulletin, 121(3), 355–370.
Hayden, E. P., Klein, D. N., Durbin, C. E., & Olino, T. M. (2006). Positive emotionality at age 3 predicts cognitive styles in 7-year-old children. Developmental and Psychopathology, 18, 409–423.
Henderson, L., Banerjee, R., Smith, C., & Buell, S. (2000). Social anxiety, negative emotion, and social cognition in children: Results of social skills groups. Retrieved January 28, 2002, from Stanford University’s Shyness Institute Web site: http://www.shyness.com/documents/2000/social-cognition-children.pdf.
Hirshfeld, D. R., Rosenbaum, J. F., Biederman, J., & Bolduc, E. A. (1992). Stable behavior inhibition and its association with anxiety disorder. Journal of American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 31(1), 103–111.
Ho, E. S. U. (2006). Social disparity of family involvement in Hong Kong: Effect of family resources and family network. School Community Journal, 16(2), 7–26.
Holleb, L. J., Burns, A. M., Erdley, C. A., Nangle, D. W., & Kaye, A. J. (2007, March). The psychosocial characteristics of the friends of socially anxious children. Poster session presented at the annual meeting of the Society for Research on Child Development, Boston, MA.
Howes, C. (1988). Peer interaction of young children. Monographs of the society of research in child development, 53.
Howes, C. (1996). The earliest friendships. In W. M. Bukowski, A. F. Newcomb, & W. W. Hartup (Eds.), The company they keep: Friendship in childhood and adolescence (pp. 66–86). New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
Hymel, S., Rubin, K. H., Rowden, L., & LeMare, L. (1990). Children’s peer relationships: Longitudinal prediction of internalizing and externalizing problems from middle to late childhood. Child Development, 61, 2004–2021.
Ingram, R. E. (1990). Self-focused attention in clinical disorders: Review and a conceptual model. Psychological Bulletin, 107, 156–176.
Jones, W. H., Freemon, J. E., & Goswick, R. A. (1981). The persistence of loneliness: Self and other determinants. Journal of Personality, 49(1), 27–48.
Kagan, J. (1981). The Second Year. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
Kagan, J. (1989). Temperamental contributions to social behavior. American Psychologist, 44(4), 668–674.
Kagan, J. (2001). Temperamental contributions to affective and behavioral profiles in childhood. In S. Hofmann, & P. DiBartolo (Eds.), From Social Anxiety to Social Phobia (pp. 216–234). Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
Kagan, J., & Snidman, N. (1991). Temperamental factors in human development. American Psychologist, 46(8), 856–862.
Kagan, J., Kearsley, R. B., & Zelazo, P. R. (1977). The effects of infant day care on psychological development. Evaluation Quarterly, 1(1), 109–142.
Kagan, J., Reznick, J. S., & Snidman, N. (1987). The physiology and psychology of behavioral inhibition in children. Child Development, 58, 1459–1473.
Kagan, J., Reznick, J. S., Snidman, N., Gibbons, J., & Johnson, M. O. (1988). Childhood derivatives of inhibition and lack of inhibition to the unfamiliar. Child Development, 59(6), 1580–1589.
Kaitz, M., & Maytal, H. (2005). Interactions between anxious mothers and their infants: An integration of theory and research findings. Infant Mental Health Journal, 26(6), 570–597.
Ladd, G. W. (2006). Peer rejection, aggressive or withdrawn behaviour, and psychological maladjustment from ages 5 to 12: An examination of four predictive models. Child Development, 77(4), 822–846.
Ladd, G.W., Kochenderfer, B.J., & Coleman, C.C. (1996). Friendship quality as a predictor of young children’s early school adjustment. Child Development, 67, 1103–1118.
Leary, M. R. (1983). The conceptual distinctions are important: Another look at communication apprehension and related constructs. Human Communication Research, 10(2), 305–312.
Leary, M. R., Kowalski, R. M., & Campbell, C. D. (1988). Self-presentational concerns and social anxiety: The role of generalized impression expectancies. Journal of Research in Personality, 22(3), 308–321.
LeDoux, J. E. (1996). The emotional brain: the mysterious underpinnings of emotional life. New York, NY: Simon and Schuster.
Miller, S. R., Murry, V. M., & Brody, G. H. (2005). Parents’ problem solving with preadolescents and its association with social withdrawal at school: Considering parents’ stress and child gender. Fathering: A Journal of Theory, Research, and Practice about Men as Fathers, 3(2), 147–163.
Mills, R. S. L., & Rubin, K. H. (1993). Socialization factors in the development of social withdrawal. In K. H. Rubin, & J. Asendorpf (Eds.), Social Withdrawal, inhibition, and shyness in childhood (pp. 117–148). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Moskowitz, D. S., & Schwartzman, A. E. (1989). Painting group portraits: Assessing life outcomes for aggressive and withdrawn children. Journal of Personality, 57, 723–746.
Page, R. M., & Zarco, E. P. (2001). Shyness, physical activity, and sports team participation among Philippine high school students. Child Study Journal, 31(3), 193–204.
Parker, J. G., & Asher, S. R. (1987). Peer relations and later personal adjustment: Are low-accepted children at risk. Psychological Bulletin, 102, 357–389.
Parker, J. G., & Asher, S. R. (1993). Friendship and friendship quality in middle childhood: Links with peer group acceptance and feelings of loneliness and social dissatisfaction. Developmental Psychology, 29(4), 611–621.
Pilkonis, P. A. (1977). The behavioral consequences of shyness. Journal of Personality, 45(4), 596–611.
Prakash, K., & Coplan, R. J. (2003). Shy skaters? Shyness, coping, and adjustment outcomes in female adolescent figure skaters. Athletic insight: The online journal of sports psychology, 5. Retrieved from http://www.athleticinsight.com/Vol5Iss1/ShySkaters.htm.
Putallaz, M., & Gottman, J. M. (1981). An interactional model of children’s entry into peer groups. Child Development, 52(3), 986–994.
Raikes, H. A., & Thompson, R. A. (2006). Family emotional climate, attachment security and young children’s emotion knowledge in a high risk sample. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 24, 89–104.
Reiss, D., & Neiderhiser, J. M. (2000). The interplay of genetic influences and social processes in developmental theory: Specific mechanisms are coming into view. Development and Psychopathology, 12, 357–374.
Reiss, D., Neiderhiser, J. M., Hetherington, E. M., & Plomin, R. (2000). The Relationship Code: Deciphering Genetic and Social Influences on Adolescent Development. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Rose-Krasnor, L., Campbell, K., Rubin, K. H., Booth-LaForce, C. L., & Laursen, B. (2007, March). Activity involvement in shy/withdrawn and “average” youth. Poster presented at the biennial meeting of the society for research in child development, Boston, MA.
Rubin, K. H., Cheah, C. S. L., & Fox, N. (2001). Emotion regulation, parenting, and display of social reticence in preschoolers. Early Education and Development, 12, 97–115.
Rubin, K. H., Hastings, P., Chen, X., Stewart, S., & McNichol, K. (1998). Intrapersonal and maternal correlates of aggression, conflict, and externalizing problems in toddlers. Child Development, 69, 1614–1629.
Rubin, K. H., Nelson, L. J., Hastings, P., & Asendorpf, J. (1999). The transaction between parents’ perceptions of their children’s shyness and their parenting styles. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 23(4), 937–957.
Rubin, K. H., & Stewart, S. L. (1996). Social withdrawal. In E. J. Mash & R. A. Barkley (Eds.), Child Psychopathology (pp. 277–307). New York, N.Y: Guilford Press.
Rubin, K. H., Stewart, S. L., & Coplan, R. J. (1995). Social withdrawal in childhood: Conceptual and empirical perspectives. Advances in Clinical Child Psychology, 17, 157–196.
Rubin, K. H., Wojslawowicz, J. C., Rose-Krasnor, L., Booth-LaForce, C., & Burgess, K. B. (2006). The best friendships of shy/withdrawn children: Prevalence, stability, and relationship quality. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 34(2), 143–157.
Rutter, M. (1996). Transitions and turning points in developmental psychology: As applied to the age span between childhood and mid-adulthood. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 19, 603–626.
Schaffer, H. R. (1966). The onset of fear of strangers and the incongruity hypothesis. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 7(2), 95–106.
Schmidt, M. E., & Bagwell, C. L. (2007, March). Does friendship quality moderate the association between peer victimization and internalizing distress? Poster session presented at the annual meeting of the Society for Research on Child Development, Boston, MA.
Schmidt, L. A., Fox, N. A., Rubin, K. H., & Sternberg, E. M. (1997). Behavioral and neuroendocrine responses in shy children. Developmental Psychobiology, 30(2), 127–140.
Schmidt, L. A., Polak, C. P., & Spooner, A. L. (2005). Biological and environmental contributions to childhood shyness: A diathesis-stress model. In W. R. Crozier, & L. E. Alden (Eds.), The essential handbook of social anxiety for clinicians (pp. 33–55). New York, NY: John Wiley and Sons Ltd.
Schmidt, L. A., & Schulkin, J. (Eds.). (1999). Series in affective science. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
Schneider, B. H., Richard, J. F., Younger, A. J., & Freeman, P. (2000). A longitudinal exploration of the continuity of children’s social participation and social withdrawal across socioeconomic status levels and social settings. European Journal of Social Psychology, 30, 497–519.
Sebanc, A. M. (2003). The friendship features of preschool children: Links with prosocial behavior and aggression. Social Development, 12(2), 249–268.
Shaffer, D. R. (2005). Social and personality development. Belmont, CA: Thomson Wadsworth.
Spinrad, T. L., Eisenberg, N., Cumberland, A., Fabes, R.A., Valiente, C., Shepard, S. A., et al. (2006). Relation of emotion-related regulation to children’s social competence: A longitudinal study. Emotion, 6(3), 498–510.
Sullivan, H. S. (1953). The interpersonal theory of psychiatry. New York: Norton.
Theall-Honey, L. A., & Schmidt, L. A. (2006). Do temperamentally shy children process emotion differently than nonshy children? Behavioral, psychophysiological, and gender differences in reticent preschoolers. Developmental Psychobiology, 48(3), 187–196.
Wigfield, A., & Eccles, J. S. (2002). Students' motivation during the middle school years. In J. Aronson (Ed.), Improving academic achievement: impact of psychological factors on education. (pp. 159–184). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
Zimbardo, P. G. (1977). Shyness: What it is, what to do about it. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
Acknowledgment
The authors would like to thank Dr. Carlin Miller for her proofreading and helpful editing of the manuscript through multiple revisions.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Miller, S.R., Coll, E. From Social Withdrawal to Social Confidence: Evidence for Possible Pathways. Curr Psychol 26, 86–101 (2007). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-007-9006-6
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-007-9006-6