Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Depressive Symptoms Among Native and Immigrant Adolescents in Norway: The Role of Gender and Urbanization

  • Published:
Social Indicators Research Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

The study investigates depressive symptoms among 3,431 adolescents aged 13–15 years. The sample comprises both native Norwegian and immigrant adolescents living in Norway. The main finding of the study is that the level of depressive symptoms is significantly higher among the immigrant adolescents than their Norwegian counterparts. When analysed separately for boys and girls, the difference is still significant for boys. Generally depressive symptoms are significantly higher among girls than among boys. Depressive symptoms, especially in boys, may also be related to the degree of urbanization of the area they live in. In cities, there is a significant difference between native Norwegian and immigrant boys, with immigrant boys having a higher level of depressive symptoms than native Norwegians. The implications for future research about immigrant adolescents and their psychosocial adjustment are discussed.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3

Similar content being viewed by others

Notes

  1. The five categories of urbanization according to Wichstrøm et al. (1996): “Oslo”, “Large town” (100,000–200,000 inhabitants), “suburban area” (less than 25 km from Oslo or large city), “Small town” (fewer than 75,000 inhabitants) and “Village or in the countryside”.

References

  • Aarø, L. E. (1986). Health behaviour and socioeconomic status. A survey among the adult population of Norway. Dr philos thesis. University of Bergen, Bergen.

  • Aneshensel, C. S., Clark, V. A., & Frerichs, R. R. (1983). Race, ethnicity and depression: A confirmatory analysis. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 44(2), 385–398. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.44.2.385.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Aronowitz, M. (1984). The social and emotional adjustment if immigrant children: A review of the literature. The International Migration Review, 18, 237–257. doi:10.2307/2545949.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bashir, M. (1993). Issues of immigration for the health and adjustment of young people. Journal of Paediatrics and Child Health, 29, 42–45. doi:10.1111/j.1440-1754.1993.tb02260.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bauman, Z. (1991). Modernity and ambivalence. Cambridge: Polity Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Beiser, M., & Attneave, C. (1982). Mental disorder among native American children: Rates and risk periods for entering treatment. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 139, 192–198.

    Google Scholar 

  • Beiser, M., & Edwards, R. G. (1994). Mental health of immigrants and refugees. New Directions for Mental Health Services, 61, 73–86. doi:10.1002/yd.23319946110.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Berge, T. (2002). Mestring av depresjon. Veileder i forståelse og behandling av stemningslidelser. Tidsskrift For Norsk Psykologiforening. Oslo: Norsk psykologiforening.

  • Berry, J. W. (1997). Immigration, acculturation and adaption. Applied Psychology. International Review (Steubenville, Ohio), 46, 5–34.

    Google Scholar 

  • Berry, J. W., & Kim, U. (1998). Acculturation and mental health. In P. R. Dasen, J. W. Berry, et al. (Eds.), Health and cross-cultural psychology: Towards applications (pp. 207–236). London: Sage Publications.

    Google Scholar 

  • Berry, J. W., Phinney, J. S., Sam, D. L., & Vedder, P. (Eds.). (2006). Immigrant youth in cultural transition: Acculturation, identity and adaptation across national contexts. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Publishers.

    Google Scholar 

  • Berry, J. W., Trimble, J. E., & Olmedo, E. L. (1986). Assessment and acculturation. In W. L. Lonner & J. W. Berry (Eds.), Field methods in cross-cultural research (pp. 291–324). Beverly Hills: Sage Publications.

    Google Scholar 

  • Borg, W. R., & Gall, M. D. (1989). Educational research: An introduction. New York: Longman.

    Google Scholar 

  • Børve, T. A., & Dalgard, O. S. (2000). Depresjoner. Psykisk helse (pp. 237–258). Oslo: Gyldendal akademisk.

  • Brox, O. (1991). Jeg er ikke rasist, men…. Oslo: Gyldendal Norsk Forlag.

    Google Scholar 

  • Casper, R. C., Belanoff, J., & Offer, D. (1996). Gender differences, but no racial group differences, in self-reported psychiatric symptoms in adolescents. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 35, 500–508. doi:10.1097/00004583-199604000-00016.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cheng, T. A. (1989). Urbanization and minor psychiatric morbidity. A community study in Taiwan. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 24, 309–316. doi:10.1007/BF01788034.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chipuer, H. M., Bramston, P., & Pretty, G. (2003). Determinants of subjective quality of life among rural adolescents: A developmental perspective. Social Indicators Research, 61(1), 79. doi:10.1023/A:1021271831731.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cotterell, J. (2004). Social networks and social influences in adolescence. New York: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cronbach, L. J. (1951). Coefficient alpha and the internal structure of tests. Psychometrica, 16, 297–334. doi:10.1007/BF02310555.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cummins, R. A. (1997). Assessing quality of life. In R. I. Brown (Ed.), Quality of life for people with disabilities: Models research and practice (pp. 116–130). Cheltenham: Stanley Thornes.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cyranowski, J. M., Frank, E., Young, E., & Shear, M. K. (2000). Adolescent onset of the gender difference in lifetime rates of major depression. A theoretical model. Archives of General Psychiatry, 57(1), 21–27. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.57.1.21.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dalgard, O. D., Bjørk, S., & Tambs, K. (1995). Social support, negative life events and mental health. The British Journal of Psychiatry, 166, 29–34.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dalgard, O. D., Thapa, S. B., Hauff, E., McCubbin, M., & Syed, H. R. (2006). Immigration, lack of control and psychological distress: Findings from the Oslo Health Study. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 47, 551–558. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9450.2006.00546.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Derogatis, L. R., Lipman, R. S., Rickels, K., Uhlenhuth, E. H., & Covi, L. (1974). The Hopkins symptom checklist (HSCL): A self-report symptom inventory. Behavioral Science, 19, 1–15. doi:10.1002/bs.3830190102.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Engebrigtsen, A., & Farstad, G. R. (2004). Somaliere i eksil i Norge. En kartlegging av erfaringer fra fem kommuner og åtte bydeler i Oslo. Skriftserie 1/04. Oslo: NOVA.

  • Fleming, J. E., Offord, D. R., & Boyle, M. H. (1989). Prevalence of childhood and adolescent depression in the community: Ontario Child Health Study. The British Journal of Psychiatry, 155, 647–654.

    Google Scholar 

  • Foroughi, E., Misajon, R. A., & Cummins, R. A. (2001). The relationships between migration, social support, and social integration on quality of life. Behaviour Change, 18, 156–167.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gonzales, N. A., & Kim, L. S. (1997). Stress and coping in an ethnic minority context. Children’s cultural ecologies. In S. A. Wolnick & I. N. Sandre (Eds.), Handbook of children’s coping: Linking theory and intervention. New York: Plenum Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gove, W. R., & Herb, T. R. (1974). Stress and mental illness among the young: A comparison of the sexes. Social Forces, 53(2), 256–265.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Heiman, G. W. (1992). Basic statistics for the behavioral sciences. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hofstede, G. (1983). Dimensions of national cultures in fifty countries and three regions. In J. Deregowski, S. Dziurawiec & R. Annis (Eds.), Expiscations in cross-cultural psychology. Lisse: Swet & Zeitlinger.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hofstede, G. (2001). Cultures consequences: Comparing values, behaviors, institutions, and organizations across nations (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications.

    Google Scholar 

  • Høgmo, A. (2002). Fremmed i det norske hus. Innvandreres møte med bygdesamfunn, småby og storby. Oslo: Gyldendal Akademisk.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jasinkaja-Lahti, I., Liebkind, K., Horenczyk, G., & Schmitz, P. (2003). The interactive nature of acculturation: Perceived discrimination, acculturation attitudes and stress among young ethnic repatriates in Finland, Israel and Germany. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 27, 79–97. doi:10.1016/S0147-1767(02)00061-5.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kandel, D. B., & Davies, M. (1982). Epidemiology of depressed mood in adolescents. An empirical study. Archives of General Psychiatry, 39, 1205–1212.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kessler, R. C., Avenevoli, S., & Merikangas, K. R. (2001). Mood disorders in children and adolescents: An epidemiologic perspective. Society of Biological Psychiatry, 49, 1002–1014. doi:10.1016/S0006-3223(01)01129-5.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kessler, R. C., & McLeod, J. D. (1984). Sex differences in vulnerability to undesirable life events. American Sociological Review, 49, 620–631. doi:10.2307/2095420.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kleinmann, A., & Good, B. (Eds.). (1985). Culture and depression. Studies in the anthropology and cross-cultural psychiatry of affect and disorder. Berkeley: University of California Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kvernmo, S. (1999). North Norwegian adolescents in a multiethnic context. A study of emotional and behavioral problems, ethnic identity and acculturation attitudes in Sami, Kven and Norwegian adolescents. Tromsø: University of Tromsø.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kvernmo, S., & Heyerdahl, S. (1999). The north Norwegian youth study: I. Acculturation strategies, ethnic identity and Ethnic context as predictors of behavioural/emotional problems in indigenous and ethnocultural adolescents. In S. Kvernmo (Ed.), North Norwegian adolescents in a multiethnic context. A study of emotional and behavioral problems, ethnic identity and acculturation attitudes in Sami, Kven and Norwegian adolescents. Tromsø: University of Tromsø.

    Google Scholar 

  • Larson, R. W. (2002). Globalization, social change, and new technologies: What they mean for the future of adolescents. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 12(1), 1–30. doi:10.1111/1532-7795.00023.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lavik, N. J. (1976). Ungdoms mentale helse. En empirisk-psykiatrisk undersøkelse av psykisk helse og tilpasning blant ungdomsskoleelever i et by- og bygdeområde i Norge. Oslo: Universitetsforlaget.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lavik, N. L. (1999). Flyktningers psykiske helse. Oslo: Universitetsforlaget.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lipman, E. L., Offord, D. R., & Boyle, M. H. (1994). Relation between economic disadvantages and psychological morbidity in children. Canadian Medical Association Journal, 151, 431–437.

    Google Scholar 

  • McCartney, J. R. (1987). Adolescent depression: A growth and development perspective. Adolescent Psychiatry, 14, 208–217.

    Google Scholar 

  • Neto, F. (1995). Predictors of satisfaction with life among second generation migrants. Social Indicators Research, 35, 93–116. doi:10.1007/BF01079240.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • NFI. (2006). Immigration control and morality. Retrieved April 6, 2006, from http://dbh.nsd.uib.no/nfi/rapport/?keys=7584&language=en.

  • Nie, N. H., Hull, C. H., Jenkins, J. G., Steinberge, K., & Bent, D. H. (1975). SPSS. Statistical package for the social sciences (2nd ed.). New York: McGraw Hill Book Company.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (1990). Sex-differences in depression. Stanford: Stanford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (1994). An interactive model for the emergence of gender differences in depression in adolescence. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 4(4), 519–534. doi:10.1207/s15327795jra0404_5.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Oppedal, B. (2003). Adolescent mental health in multicultural context. Oslo: University of Oslo.

    Google Scholar 

  • Oppedal, B., & Røysamb, E. (2004). Mental health, life stress and social support among young Norwegian adolescents with immigrant and host national background. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 45, 131–144. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9450.2004.00388.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Oppedal, B., Røysamb, E., & Sam, D. L. (2004). The effect of acculturation and social support on change in mental health among young immigrants. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 28(6), 481–494. doi:10.1080/01650250444000126.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pantzer, K., Rajmil, L., Tebe, C., Codina, F., Ferrer, M., Ravens-Sieberger, U., et al. (2006). Health related quality of life in immigrants and native school aged adolescents in Spain. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health, 60, 694–698. doi:10.1136/jech.2005.044073.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Petersen, A. C., Sarigiani, P. A., & Kennedy, R. E. (1991). Adolescent depression: Why more girls? Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 20, 247–271. doi:10.1007/BF01537611.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Philip, D. L., & Segal, B. E. (1969). Sexual status and psychiatric symptoms. American Sociological Review, 34(1), 58–72.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Roberts, R. E., Roberts, C. R., & Chen, Y. R. (1997). Ethnocultural differences in prevalence of adolescent depression. American Journal of Community Psychology, 25, 95–110. doi:10.1023/A:1024649925737.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Roland, E. (2002a). Aggression, depression, and bullying others. Aggressive Behavior, 28, 198–206. doi:10.1002/ab.90022.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Roland, E. (2002b). Bullying, depressive symptoms and suicidal thoughts. Educational Research, 44(1), 55–67. doi:10.1080/00131880110107351.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Roland, E., & Idsøe, T. (2001). Aggression and bullying. Aggressive Behaviour, 27(6), 446–462.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Roll-Hansen, D. (1999). Samordnet levekårsundersøklese 1998 – tverrsnittsundersøkelsen, Dokumentasjonsrapport. Statistisk sentralbyrå/Statistics Norway.

  • Rosenhan, D. L., & Seligman, M. E. P. (1989). Abnormal psychology. New York: W. W. Norton & Company, Inc.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sam, D. L. (1994). Psychological adjustment of young immigrants in Norway. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 35, 240–253. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9450.1994.tb00948.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sam, D. L. (1997). Helse, livsstil/helseadferd og helsefremmende arbeid blant innvandrerungdom i Norge. In K. I. Klepp & L. E. Aarø (Eds.), Ungdom, livsstil og helsefremmende arbeid. (2 utg.) (pp. 88–99). Oslo: Universitetsforlaget.

  • Sam, D. L., & Berry, J. W. (1995). Acculturative stress among young immigrants in Norway. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 36, 10–24. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9450.1995.tb00964.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shamoo, K. S., & Patros, P. G. (1999). Depresjon og selvmordstanker hos barn og unge. Oslo: Tano Aschehoug As.

    Google Scholar 

  • Statistics Norway. (1994). Standard classification of municipalities 1994.

  • Statistics Norway. (2005). Innvandring og innvandrere 2005. Retrieved April 6, 2006, from http://www.ssb.no/emner/02/sa_innvand/sa66/.

  • Statistics Norway. (2008). Available from Statistics Norway Web site, http://www.ssb.no/.

  • Tanaka-Matsumi, J., & Draguns, J. (1997). Culture and psychopathology. In J. W. Berry, M. H. Segall & C. Kagitcibasi (Eds.), Handbook of cross-cultural psychology: Social behaviours and applications (2nd ed., Vol. 3, pp. 413–448). Boston: Allyn & Bacon.

    Google Scholar 

  • Torgersen, L. (2001). Sammenhengen mellom depressivt stemningsleie og relasjoner til foreldre. En studie av andregenerasjons pakistanske innvandrere og ungdommer av norsk opprinnelse. Tidsskrift for norsk psykologiforening, 38, 640–648.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tseng, W.-S. (2001). Handbook of cultural psychiatry. New York: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wang, X., & Kanungo, R. N. (2004). Nationality, social network and psychological well-being: Expatriates in China. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 15, 775–793. doi:10.1080/0958519042000192942.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Weiner, I. B. (1975). Depression in adolescence. In F. F. Flach & S. C. Draghi (Eds.), The nature and treatment of depression. New York: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • WHO. (2001). The world health report 2001. Mental health: New understanding, new hope. Geneva: World Health organization.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wichstrøm, L. (1994). Mental helse blant ungdom i Norge. Oslo som særtilfelle? Rapport 3/94. Oslo: Norges Forskningsråd, program for ungdomsforskning UNGforsk.

  • Wichstrøm, L. (1999). The emergence of gender difference in depressed mood during adolescence: The role of intensified gender socialization. Developmental Psychology, 35(1), 232–245. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.35.1.232.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wichstrøm, L. W., Skogen, K., & Øia, T. (1996). Increased rate of conduct problems in urban areas: What is the mechanism? Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 35(4), 471–479.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wirth, L. (1997). Urbanism as a way of Life. In J. C. Alexander, R. Boudon & M. Cherkaoui (Eds.), The classical tradition in Sociology, the American tradition. London: Thousand Oaks.

    Google Scholar 

  • Yeung, A. (2002). Somatoform disorders. Best Practice, 176, 253–256.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ying, Y.-W. (1992). Life satisfaction among San Francisco Chinese-Americans. Social Indicators Research, 26, 1–22. doi:10.1007/BF00303823.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zahn-Waxler, C., & McBride, A. (1998). Current perspectives on social and emotional development. In J. G. Adair & D. Belanger (Eds.), Advances in psychological science. Vol 1. Social, personal and cultural aspects. Hove: Psychology Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ziehe, T., & Stubenrauch, H. (1983). Ny ungdom og usædvanlige læreprocesser: kulturel frisættelse og subjektivitet. København: Politisk revy.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Centre for Behavioural Research, University of Stavanger, 4036, Stavanger, Norway

    Hildegunn Fandrem & Erling Roland

  2. University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway

    David L. Sam

Authors
  1. Hildegunn Fandrem
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. David L. Sam
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Erling Roland
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Hildegunn Fandrem.

Appendix

Appendix

Items of the major variables used in the study:

  1. 1.

    Depressive symptoms:

    • Blaming yourself for things

    • Feeling everything is hard going

    • Feeling unhappy, sad or depressed

    • Feeling hopeless about the future

    • Worrying or stewing about things

    • Difficulty in falling asleep or staying asleep

Operationalization: A sum score was made of these six items. Factor loadings and Cronbach’s alphas are given in Table 4 separately for the four main groups (native and immigrant boys and girls).

Table 4 Factor analysis of items assessing depressive symptoms and Cronbach alphas for factor based index scores for native Norwegian (N) and immigrant (I) boys and girls
Full size table
  1. 2.

    Immigrant status:

    • I’m from …

Operationalization: Pupils who wrote down another country than Norway was treated as an immigrant.

  1. 3.

    Urbanization:

    • What is the name of the school you go to? …

Operationalization: The name of the school gives information of which municipality the pupil lives in, and thus also if he/she lives in a village, a town or a city.

Results from factor analysis of items assessing depressive symptoms, as well as Cronbach alphas for factor based index, are given for native Norwegian (N) and immigrant (I) boys and girls separately in the Table 4.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Fandrem, H., Sam, D.L. & Roland, E. Depressive Symptoms Among Native and Immigrant Adolescents in Norway: The Role of Gender and Urbanization. Soc Indic Res 92, 91–109 (2009). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-008-9291-y

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-008-9291-y

Keywords

Search

Navigation