Abstract
Ochratoxins have been overshadowed by better-known mycotoxins, but they are gaining importance. Here we consider ochratoxins in the context of aflatoxins, which are better understood than ochratoxins on many levels. We review recent work on taxonomic distribution, contamination of commodities, biosynthesis, toxicity and regulatory aspects of ochratoxins. We focus on ochratoxins in coffee, since coffee is becoming a key commodity in ochratoxin research and regulation.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
FC Størmer (1992) Ochratoxin A – a mycotoxin of concern D Bhatnagar EB Lillehoj DK Arora (Eds) Handbook of Applied Mycology, Vol. 5: Mycotoxins in Ecological Systems Marcel Dekker, Inc New York 403–432
Hooper J. Polluted pasta causes toxin alarm in Italy. Guardian Unlimited 1/12/2006. http://www.guardian.co.uk/food/Story/0,1684524,00.html
MK Matossian (1984) ArticleTitleMold poisoning and population growth in England and France, 1750–1850 J Econ Hist 44 669–686 Occurrence Handle11617307 Occurrence Handle1:STN:280:DC%2BD3MrosVGjtw%3D%3D Occurrence Handle10.1017/S0022050700032319
N Di Paolo A Guarnieri F Loi G Sacchi AM Mangiarotti M Di Paolo (1993) ArticleTitleAcute renal failure from inhalation of mycotoxins Nephron 64 621–625 Occurrence Handle8366990 Occurrence Handle1:STN:280:DyaK3szns1Wgtg%3D%3D Occurrence Handle10.1159/000187411
KJ Merwe Particlevan der PS Steyn L Fourie (1965) ArticleTitleOchratoxin A, a toxic metabolite produced by Aspergillus ochraceus Wilh Nature 205 1112–1113 Occurrence Handle5833211 Occurrence Handle10.1038/2051112a0
JW Bennett M Klich (2003) ArticleTitleMycotoxins Clin Microbiol Rev 16 497–516 Occurrence Handle12857779 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DC%2BD3sXmsV2qtL4%3D Occurrence Handle10.1128/CMR.16.3.497-516.2003
M Lai G Semeniuk CW Hesseltine (1970) ArticleTitleConditions for production of ochratoxin A by Aspergillus species in synthetic medium Appl Microbiol 19 542–544 Occurrence Handle5440175 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DyaE3cXhtFylsr4%3D
A Ciegler DI Fennell GA Sansing RW Detroy GA Bennett (1973) ArticleTitleMycotoxin-producing strains of Penicillium viridicatum: Classification into subgroups Appl Microbiol 26 271–278 Occurrence Handle4751786 Occurrence Handle1:STN:280:DyaE2c%2FivVequg%3D%3D
CW Hesseltine EE Vandegraft DI Fennell ML Smith OL Shotwell (1972) ArticleTitleAspergilli as ochratoxin producers Mycologia 64 539–550 Occurrence Handle5029640 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DyaE38XkvVGgurc%3D
H Tsubouchi H Terada K Yamamoto K Hisada Y Sakabe (1995) ArticleTitleCaffeine degradation and increased ochratoxin production by toxigenic strains of Aspergillus ochraceus isolated from green coffee beans Mycopathologia 90 181–186 Occurrence Handle10.1007/BF00436735
J Varga É Kevei E Rinyu J Téren Z Kozakiewicz (1996) ArticleTitleOchratoxin production by Aspergillus species Appl Environ Microbiol 62 4461–4464 Occurrence Handle8953717 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DyaK28Xnt1antb0%3D
JC Frisvad RA Samson (2000) ArticleTitleNeopetromyces gen. nov. and an overview of teleomorphs of Aspergillus subg. Circumdati Stud Mycol 45 201–207
Baker JL, Bayman P, Mahoney NE, Klich MA, Palumbo JD, Campbell BC. Ochratoxigenic Aspergillus lanosus and A. alliaceus isolates from California tree nut orchards. Proceedings of the 3rd Fungal Genomics, 4th Fumonisin, and 16th Aflatoxin Elimination Workshops, Savannah, Georgia, 2003 [Poster]
SW Peterson (2000) Phylogenetic relationships in Aspergillus based on rDNA sequence analysis RA Samson JI Pitt (Eds) Classification of Penicillium, Aspergillus: Integration of Modern Taxonomic Methods Harwood Publishers Reading UK 323–356
J Varga É Kevei B Tóth Z Kozakiewicz RF Hoekstra (2000) ArticleTitleMolecular analysis of variability within the toxigenic Aspergillus ochraceus species Can J Microbiol 46 593–599 Occurrence Handle10932351 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DC%2BD3cXlt1Wrur0%3D Occurrence Handle10.1139/cjm-46-7-593
J Varga B Tóth K Rigó J Téren RF Hoekstra Z Kozakiewicz (2000) ArticleTitlePhylogenetic analysis of Aspergillus section Circumdati based on sequences of the internal transcribed spacer regions and the 5.8S rRNA gene Fungal Genet Biol 30 71–80 Occurrence Handle10955909 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DC%2BD3cXmtlekt7s%3D Occurrence Handle10.1006/fgbi.2000.1204
JC Frisvad JM Frank J Houbraken AFA Kuijpers (2004) ArticleTitleNew ochratoxin producing species of Aspergillus section Circumdati Stud Mycol 50 23–43
ML Abarca MR Bragulat G Sastellá FJ Cabañes (1994) ArticleTitleOchratoxin A production by strains of Aspergillus niger var. niger Appl Environ Microbiol 60 2650–2652 Occurrence Handle8074536 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DyaK2cXkslyjsbg%3D
J Téren J Varga Z Hamari E Rinyu F Kevei (1996) ArticleTitleImmunochemical detection of ochratoxin A in black Aspergillus strains Mycopathologia 134 171–176 Occurrence Handle8981783 Occurrence Handle10.1007/BF00436726
RA Samson JAMP Houbraken AFA Kuijpers JM Frank JC Frisvad (2004) ArticleTitleNew ochratoxin A or sclerotium producing species in Aspergillus section Nigri Stud Mycol 50 45–61
E Schuster N Dunn-Coleman J Frisvad P Dijck Particlevan (2002) ArticleTitleOn the safety of Aspergillus niger – a review Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 59 426–435 Occurrence Handle12172605 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DC%2BD38Xmslygsrc%3D Occurrence Handle10.1007/s00253-002-1032-6
G Blank U Nwoko A Frohlich R Marquardt (1998) ArticleTitleOchratoxin A production in relation to the growth morphology of Aspergillus alutaceus Lebensm Wiss Technol 31 210–214 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DyaK1cXltV2lsrg%3D Occurrence Handle10.1006/fstl.1997.0322
Klich MA. Identification of Common Aspergillus Species. Utrecht, Netherlands: Centraalbureau voor Schimmelcultures, 2002
ML Abarca F Accensi MR Bragulat FJ Cabañes (2001) ArticleTitleCurrent importance of ochratoxin A-producing Aspergillus spp J Food Protect 64 903–906 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DC%2BD3MXlvVKiurc%3D
JI Pitt (1987) ArticleTitlePenicillium viridicatum, Penicillium verrucosum, and production of ochratoxin A Appl Environ Microbiol 53 266–269 Occurrence Handle3566267 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DyaL2sXhtFKnsbg%3D
CJ Land K Hult (1987) ArticleTitleMycotoxin production by some wood-associated Penicillium spp Lett Appl Microbiol 4 41–44 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DyaL2sXksFGnt7Y%3D
JT Mills D Abramson (1982) ArticleTitleOchratoxigenic potential of Penicillium spp. isolated from stored rapeseed and cereals in western Canada Can J Plant Pathol 4 37–41 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DyaL38XltVGgsLo%3D Occurrence Handle10.1080/07060668209501334
JC Frisvad F Lund S Elmholt (2005) ArticleTitleOchratoxin A producing Penicillium verrucosum isolates from cereals reveal large AFLP fingerprinting variability J Appl Microbiol 98 684–692 Occurrence Handle15715872 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DC%2BD2MXltlWis78%3D Occurrence Handle10.1111/j.1365-2672.2004.02509.x
MA Skaug I Helland K Solvoll OD Saugstad (2001) ArticleTitlePresence of ochratoxin A in human milk in relation to dietary intake Food Addit Contam 18 321–327 Occurrence Handle11339267 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DC%2BD3MXjtFOhurk%3D
N Paster N Lisker I Chet (1985) ArticleTitleAccumulation of ochratoxin A in sclerotia of Aspergillus ochraceus Can J Bot 63 661–662 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DyaL2MXhvF2htb0%3D Occurrence Handle10.1139/b85-083
P Bucheli C Kanchanomai I Meyer A Pittet (2000) ArticleTitleDevelopment of ochratoxin A during robusta (Coffea canephora) coffee cherry drying J Agric Food Chem 48 1358–1362 Occurrence Handle10775397 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DC%2BD3cXitVGntbo%3D Occurrence Handle10.1021/jf9905875
FE Vega G Mercadier (1998) ArticleTitleInsects, coffee and ochratoxin A Fla Entomol 81 543–544
LL Shotwell CW Hesseltine ML. Goulden A Ochratoxin (1969) ArticleTitleoccurrence as natural contaminant of a corn sample Appl Microbiol 17 765–766 Occurrence Handle5785964 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DyaF1MXlt1Snur4%3D
B Zimmerli R Dick (1996) ArticleTitleOchratoxin A in table wine and grape-juice: Occurrence and risk assessment Food Addit Contam 13 655–668 Occurrence Handle8871123 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DyaK28Xlt1ansL0%3D
JI Pitt (2000) ArticleTitleToxigenic fungi: Which are important? Med Mycol 38S 17–22
NH Aziz YA Youssef MZ El-Fouly LA Moussa (1998) ArticleTitleContamination of some common medicinal plant samples and spices by fungi and their mycotoxins Bot Bull Acad Sinica (Taiwan) 39 279–285
K Jorgensen (1998) ArticleTitleSurvey of pork, poultry, coffee, beer and pulses for ochratoxin Food Addit Contam 15 550–554 Occurrence Handle9829039 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DyaK1cXjvF2ltrk%3D
T Kuiper-Goodman PM Scott (1989) ArticleTitleRisk assessment of the mycotoxin ochratoxin A Biomed Environ Sci 2 179–248 Occurrence Handle2692617 Occurrence Handle1:STN:280:DyaK3c7itFOrsw%3D%3D
Olsen M, Jonsson N, Magan N, Banks J, Fanelli C, Rizzo A, Haikara A, Dobson A, Frisvad J, Holmes S, Pajunen E, Persson SJ, Jonsson A. Prevention of Ochratoxin A in Cereals http://www.slv.se/upload/dokument/fou/MIB/OTA%20Prev%20Handout.pdf
BC Campbell RJ Molyneux TF Schatzki (2003) ArticleTitleCurrent research on reducing pre- and post-harvest aflatoxin contamination of U.S. tree nuts J Toxicol Toxin Rev 22 225–266 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DC%2BD3sXmt1Kgtbg%3D Occurrence Handle10.1081/TXR-120024093
P Bayman JL Baker MA Doster TJ Michailides NE Mahoney (2002) ArticleTitleOchratoxin production by the Aspergillus ochraceus group and A. alliaceus Appl Environ Microbiol 68 2326–2329 Occurrence Handle11976104 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DC%2BD38XjsFGqt7s%3D Occurrence Handle10.1128/AEM.68.5.2326-2329.2002
Walker R. Mycotoxins of growing interest. Third Joint FAO/WHO/UNEP International Conference on Mycotoxins, Tunis, 1999. http://www.fao.org/es/ESN/ food/pdf/ mycotoxins_report_en.pdf
CP Levi HL Trenk HK Mohr (1974) ArticleTitleStudy of the occurrence of ochratoxin A in green coffee beans J Assoc Off Anal Chem 57 866–870 Occurrence Handle4425430 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DyaE2MXhsFemtA%3D%3D
S Romani G Sacchetti C Chaves López GG Pinnavaia M Dalla Rosa (2000) ArticleTitleScreening on the occurrence of ochratoxin A in green coffee beans of different origins and types J Agric Food Chem 48 3616–3619 Occurrence Handle10956159 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DC%2BD3cXks1WnsLo%3D Occurrence Handle10.1021/jf990783b
GR Urbano MH Taniwaki MFF Leitão MC Vicentini (2001) ArticleTitleOccurrence of ochratoxin A-producing fungi in raw Brazilian coffee J Food Prot 64 1226–1230 Occurrence Handle11510665 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DC%2BD3MXmsVyrsr4%3D
M Blanc A Pittet R Munoz-Box R Viani (1998) ArticleTitleBehavior of ochratoxin A during green coffee roasting and soluble coffee manufacture J Ag Food Chem 46 673–675 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DyaK1cXms1KgsQ%3D%3D Occurrence Handle10.1021/jf9707703
International Coffee Organization (2005). OTA risk management: guidelines for green coffee buying. http://www.ico.org/documents/ed1939e.pdf
S Patel CM Hazel AGM Winterton AE Gleadle (1997) ArticleTitleSurvey of ochratoxin A in UK retail coffees Food Addit Contam 14 217–222 Occurrence Handle9135719 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DyaK2sXivF2gtLw%3D
JP Harris PG Mantle (2001) ArticleTitleBiosynthesis of ochratoxins by Aspergillus ochraceus Phytochemistry 58 709–716 Occurrence Handle11672735 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DC%2BD3MXnslWnsrg%3D Occurrence Handle10.1016/S0031-9422(01)00316-8
Lee SE, Bayman P, Baker JL, Campbell BC. Inhibition of ochratoxin biosynthesis by naturally occurring alkaloids. [in preparation]
J O’Callaghan MX Caddick ADW Dobson (2003) ArticleTitleA polyketide synthase gene required for ochratoxin A biosynthesis in Aspergillus ochraceus Microbiology 149 3485–3491 Occurrence Handle14663081 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DC%2BD3sXhtVWnsL%2FF Occurrence Handle10.1099/mic.0.26619-0
J Yu P Chang K Ehrlich JW Cary D Bhatnagar TE Cleveland GA Payne JE Linz CP Woloshuk JW Bennett (2004) ArticleTitleThe clustered pathway genes in aflatoxin biosynthesis Appl Environ Microbiol 70 1253–1262 Occurrence Handle15006741 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DC%2BD2cXisVKjtLg%3D Occurrence Handle10.1128/AEM.70.3.1253-1262.2004
E O’Brien DR Dietrich (2005) ArticleTitleOchratoxin A: The continuing enigma Crit Rev Toxicol 35 IssueID1 33–60 Occurrence Handle15742902 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DC%2BD2MXitFahsbc%3D Occurrence Handle10.1080/10408440590905948
JW Bennett (1995) ArticleTitleFrom molecular genetics and secondary metabolism to molecular metabolites and secondary genetics Can J Bot 73 S917–S924 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DyaK28XjsV2m
PF Dowd (1989) ArticleTitleToxicity of naturally occurring levels of the Penicillium mycotoxins citrinin, ochratoxin A, and penicillic acid to the corn earworm, Heliothis zea, and the fall army worm, Spodoptera frugiperda (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) Environ Entomol 18 24–29 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DyaK3cXhtFeqsrg%3D
A Breitholtz-Emanuelsson M Olsen A Oskarsson I Palminger K Hult (1993) ArticleTitleOchratoxin A in cow’s milk and in human milk with corresponding human blood samples J Assoc Off Anal Chem 76 842–846 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DyaK2cXntVCn
J Robens K Cardwell (2003) ArticleTitleThe costs of mycotoxin management to the USA: Management of aflatoxins in the United States J Toxicol Toxin Rev 22 139–152 Occurrence Handle10.1081/TXR-120024089
P Simon (1996) ArticleTitleOchratoxin and kidney disease in the human J Toxicol Tox Rev 15 239–249 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DyaK28XmsFSgtbY%3D
Codex Alimentarius Commission. Position paper on ochratoxin A. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy, 1998. http://www.who.int/fsf/ Chemicalcontaminants /ochratoxinpp99_14.pdf
MF Hsieh HY Chiu DT Lin-Tan JL Lin (2004) ArticleTitleDoes human ochratoxin A aggravate proteinuria in patients with chronic renal disease? Ren Fail 26 311–316 Occurrence Handle15354982 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DC%2BD2cXlvVOrsr0%3D Occurrence Handle10.1081/JDI-200026744
SA Navas M Sabino DB Rodriguez-Amaya (2005) ArticleTitleAflatoxin M1 and ochratoxin A in a human milk bank in the city of São Paulo, Brazil Food Addit Contam 22 457–462 Occurrence Handle16019818 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DC%2BD2MXltFajsrw%3D Occurrence Handle10.1080/02652030500110550
SH Henry FX Bosch TC Troxell PM Bolger (1999) ArticleTitleReducing liver cancer–global control of aflatoxin Science 286 2453–2454 Occurrence Handle10636808 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DC%2BD3cXmvVSn Occurrence Handle10.1126/science.286.5449.2453
EE Creppy I Baudrimont A Belmadani AM Betbeder (1996) ArticleTitleAspartame as a preventive agent of chronic toxic effects of ochratoxin A in experimental animals J Toxicol Toxin Rev 15 207–221 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DyaK28XmsFSgtbg%3D
GG Schwartz (2002) ArticleTitleHypothesis: Does ochratoxin A cause testicular cancer? Cancer Causes Control 13 91–100 Occurrence Handle11899122 Occurrence Handle10.1023/A:1013973715289
FAO. Worldwide regulations for mycotoxins in food and feed in 2003. 2004. http://www.fao.org/documents/show_cdr.asp?url_file=/docrep/007/y5499e/y5499e0f.htm
FAO. Reducing ochratoxin A in coffee. 2005. http://www. coffee-ota.org/proj_background.asp
KC Ehrlich PJ Cotty (2004) ArticleTitleAn isolate of Aspergillus flavus used to reduce aflatoxin contamination in cottonseed has a defective polyketide synthase gene Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 65 473–478 Occurrence Handle15235754 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DC%2BD2cXotFCrtb8%3D Occurrence Handle10.1007/s00253-004-1670-y
H King RE Aubert WH Herman (1998) ArticleTitleGlobal burden of diabetes, 1995–2025 Diabetes Care 21 1414–1431 Occurrence Handle9727886 Occurrence Handle1:STN:280:DyaK1czpsVyluw%3D%3D
Cardwell KF, Desjardins A, Henry SH, Munkvold G, Robens J. Mycotoxins: the cost of achieving food security and food quality. APSnet Feature Story, 2001. http://www.apsnet.org/online/feature/mycotoxin/
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Bayman, P., Baker, J.L. Ochratoxins: A global perspective. Mycopathologia 162, 215–223 (2006). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11046-006-0055-4
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11046-006-0055-4