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Arts districts, universities, and the rise of digital media

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Abstract

In the last decade, arts and culture have been placed at the center of attention when discussing economic growth. In particular, studies on the “creative class” have been using arts and culture as an important factor impacting local economies. In addition, studies on local economic development have frequently viewed universities as a major factor in economic growth. In the middle of this discussion is new economic growth via creativity, via new recipes and new combinations of local capital, and via innovation centers. Combining these disparate literatures brings to center stage both clusters of arts and culture and concentrations of research and human capital development. Hence, the focus of this paper is to analyze the dual impacts of universities and arts districts on innovation and economic growth through employment in digital media. The results indicate that cultural districts have a consistently positive effect on local digital media economic activity—employment and innovation. The same cannot be said for research universities.

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Notes

  1. In the analysis of the impact of art districts on patenting, the medium variable was split into two: medium cities where the arts district has a large share of the population but a small area (9 cities), and medium cities where the art district has a small population share but a large area (2 cities).

  2. Our unit of observation in this analysis is a “city,” although this is somewhat imprecisely defined. As noted, some variables are available only at broader, metropolitan levels (and thus describe more than just within the city limits). This may weaken the observed relationships, but the interdependence of economic development within a metropolitan region suggests that activity in one city might well affect development in a neighboring city. Furthermore, as the definitional change is the same across all treatment groups, emphasizing the difference in trends limits its consequences for the analysis.

  3. For the cities in the sample, a dictionary of alternate and misspelled city names were used in the matching. Inaccuracies are common in the NBER patent database, and our approach to manually create city synonyms for our sample of cities addresses this. Cities like New York has 19 separate spellings (e.g., “N.Y.”, “New York City”, “New Yotk”) while Milwaukee had 13 (e.g., “Mulwaukee” and “Milwaukie”).

  4. For patenting classifications, industry codes, and occupation codes, alternate (more restrictive and more expansive) coding was experimented with, and the results do not differ substantially.

  5. If the district size variable is treated as a continuous variable, ranging from 0 (no district) to 3 (large district), this variable is positively correlated with AInd9811 with r = 0.20 (and a p value <0.06).

  6. For this category, the areashare of the arts district does not make a difference.

  7. Our data on art schools and programs in the city is available only in 2011. Since our patent data ends in 2006, we cannot review the impact of these programs on patenting and patenting trends.

  8. Of course, other effects might result, too. Universities might drive up wages or other input prices, possibly reducing labor demanded. Arts districts might do likewise, or they might specialize in art forms with little or no overlap with digital media technologies.

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Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. School of Public Policy, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, 30332-0345, USA

    Shiri M. Breznitz

  2. School of Public and Environmental Affairs (SPEA), Indiana University Public Policy Institute, Indiana University–Purdue University Indianapolis, Indianapolis, IN, USA

    Douglas S. Noonan

Authors
  1. Shiri M. Breznitz
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  2. Douglas S. Noonan
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Corresponding author

Correspondence to Shiri M. Breznitz.

Appendix: Definitions

Appendix: Definitions

1.1 Categories for arts-related industries 1998

Glass and glass products; cement, concrete, gypsum, and plaster products; structural clay products; pottery and related products; fabricated structural metal products; photographic equipment and supplies; radio and television broadcasting and cable; theatre and motion pictures; miscellaneous entertainment; museum, galleries, and zoos; engineering, architecture, and surveying services.

1.2 Categories for digital media-related industries 1998

Newspapers publishing and printing; printing publishing and allied industries; paints, varnishes, and related products; photographic equipment and supplies; radio and television broadcasting and cable; paper and paper products; advertising; computer and data processing services; theatre and motion pictures; miscellaneous entertainment; museum, galleries, and zoos.

1.3 Categories for arts industries 2011

Printing and related support activities; pottery, ceramics, and related product manufacturing; structural clay product manufacturing; glass and glass product manufacturing; cement, concrete, lime, and gypsum products manufacturing; misc. nonmetallic product manufacturing; aluminum production and processing; cutlery and hand tool manufacturing; coating, engraving, heat treated and allied activities; motion pictures and video industries; sound recording industries; radio and TV broadcasting and cable; internet publishing and broadcasting; architectural, engineering and related services; specialized design services; computer system design and related services; advertising and related services; independent artists, performing art, spectator sports, and related industries; museums, art galleries, and similar institutions.

1.4 Categories for digital media industries 2011

Newspaper publishing; publishing except newspapers; software publishing; motion pictures and video industries; sound recording industries; radio and TV broadcasting and cable; internet publishing and broadcasting; specialized design services; computer system design and related services; advertising and related services; independent artists, performing art, spectator sports, and related industries; museums, art galleries, and similar institutions.

1.5 Arts occupations 1998

Buys, wholesale and retail trade; purchasing agents and buyers; architects; arts, drama, and music teachers; authors; technical writers; designers; musicians and composers; actors and director; painters, sculptors, craft-artists, and artists paintmakers; photographers; dancer; artists, performers, and related workers; editors and reports; tool and die makers; tool and die apprentices; precision assemblers; patternmakers and model makers, wood; hand molders; patternmakers jay out workers cutters; hand cutting and trimming; hand molding, casting, and forming; hand painting, coating; hand engraving and printing; miscellaneous hand working; production helpers.

1.6 Digital media occupations 1998

These are: designers; musicians and composers; actors and director; painters, sculptors, craft-artists, and artists paintmakers; photographers; artists, performers, and related workers; editors and reports; computer operators; classified ad clerks; production helpers.

1.7 Arts occupations 2011

Computer and information systems managers; agents and business managers of artists, performers, and athletes; purchasing agents, except wholesale, retails, and farm products; architects; artists and related workers; designers; producers and directors; dancers and choreographers; musicians, singers, and related workers; entertainers and performers; announcers; editors; technical writers; writers and authors; misc media; broadcast and sound; photographers; television, video, and motion picture camera operators; media and communication equipment; motion picture projectionists; misc personal appearance workers; extruding and drawing machine setters; forging machine setters; rolling machine setters; tool and die makers; heat treating equipment; layout workers, metal and plastic; printing machine operators; model makers and pattern makers wood; photographic process workers.

1.8 Digital media occupations 2011

Computer and information systems managers; agents and business managers of artists, performers, and athletes; purchasing agents, except wholesale, retails, and farm products; computer programmers; computer software engineers; computer support specialists; artists and related workers; producers and directors; dancers and choreographers; musicians, singers, and related workers; entertainers and performers; announcers; public relations specialists; editors; technical writers; writers and authors; misc media; broadcast and sound; photographers; television, video, and motion picture camera operators; media and communication equipment; motion picture projectionists; hairdressers, hairstylists; misc personal appearance workers; printing machine operators; photographic process workers; helpers–production workers; production workers–all others.

1.9 Digital media patent codes

Class

Description

A63J

DEVICES FOR THEATRES, CIRCUSES, OR THE LIKE; CONJURING APPLIANCES OR THE LIKE (buildings for meetings, entertainments or sports E04H 3/10)

B41F

PRINTING MACHINES OR PRESSES (machines for manufacturing footwear incorporating printing or embossing apparatus A43D, e.g. A43D 8/26, A43D 95/14; presses in general B30B; making of printing surfaces B41C, B41D; manifolding devices, office printing machines B41L; stencilling B41L; printing processes not dependent on the use of special machines B41M; duplicating or marking by sublimation or volatilisation of design B41M 5/035; thermography B41M 5/26; embossing decorations or marks B44B 5/00; handling thin or filamentary material B65H; electrography, electrophotography, magnetography G03G)

B41G

APPARATUS FOR BRONZE PRINTING, LINE PRINTING, OR FOR BORDERING OR EDGING SHEETS OR LIKE ARTICLES; AUXILIARY APPARATUS FOR PERFORATING IN CONJUNCTION WITH PRINTING (perforating in general B26D; production of decorations B44C; perforating in conjunction with sheet or web delivery B65H 35/00; folding or unfolding thin material, e.g. sheets, webs, B65H 45/00, B65H 47/00)

B41M

PRINTING, DUPLICATING, MARKING, OR COPYING PROCESSES; COLOUR PRINTING (correction of typographical errors B41J; processes for applying transfer pictures or the like B44C 1/16; fluid media for correction of typographical errors by coating C09D 10/00; printing textiles D06P)

B42D

BOOKS; BOOK COVERS; LOOSE LEAVES; PRINTED MATTER OF SPECIAL FORMAT OR STYLE NOT OTHERWISE PROVIDED FOR; DEVICES FOR USE THEREWITH; MOVABLE-STRIP WRITING OR READING APPARATUS (book stands A47B; reading desks A47B 19/00; book rests A47B 23/00)

B44D

PAINTING OR ARTISTIC DRAWING, NOT OTHERWISE PROVIDED FOR; PRESERVING PAINTINGS; SURFACE TREATMENT TO OBTAIN SPECIAL ARTISTIC SURFACE EFFECTS OR FINISHES (surface treatment in general, see the relevant places, e.g. applying liquids or other fluent materials B05) [2]

F21W

INDEXING SCHEME ASSOCIATED WITH SUBCLASSES F21L, F21S and F21V, RELATING TO USES OR APPLICATIONS OF LIGHTING DEVICES OR SYSTEMS

G03B

APPARATUS OR ARRANGEMENTS FOR TAKING PHOTOGRAPHS OR FOR PROJECTING OR VIEWING THEM; APPARATUS OR ARRANGEMENTS EMPLOYING ANALOGOUS TECHNIQUES USING WAVES OTHER THAN OPTICAL WAVES; ACCESSORIES THEREFOR (optical parts of such apparatus G02B; photosensitive materials or processes for photographic purposes G03C; apparatus for processing exposed photographic materials G03D)

G03C

PHOTOSENSITIVE MATERIALS FOR PHOTOGRAPHIC PURPOSES (for photomechanical purposes G03F); PHOTOGRAPHIC PROCESSES, e.g. CINE, X-RAY, COLOUR, STEREO-PHOTOGRAPHIC PROCESSES; AUXILIARY PROCESSES IN PHOTOGRAPHY (photographic processes characterised by the use or manipulation of apparatus classifiable per se in subclass G03B, see G03B; photomechanical production of textured or patterned surfaces G03F; electrography, electrophotography, magnetography G03G)

G04F

TIME-INTERVAL MEASURING (measuring pulse characteristics G01R, e.g. G01R 29/02; in radar or like systems G01S; masers H01S 1/00; generation of oscillations H03B; generation or counting of pulses, frequency dividing H03K; analogue/digital conversion in general H03M 1/00)

G04G

ELECTRONIC TIME-PIECES

G06F

ELECTRIC DIGITAL DATA PROCESSING (computers in which a part of the computation is effected hydraulically or pneumatically G06D, optically G06E; computer systems based on specific computational models G06N; impedance networks using digital techniques H03H)

G06K

RECOGNITION OF DATA; PRESENTATION OF DATA; RECORD CARRIERS; HANDLING RECORD CARRIERS

G06Q

DATA PROCESSING SYSTEMS OR METHODS, SPECIALLY ADAPTED FOR ADMINISTRATIVE, COMMERCIAL, FINANCIAL, MANAGERIAL, SUPERVISORY OR FORECASTING PURPOSES; SYSTEMS OR METHODS SPECIALLY ADAPTED FOR ADMINISTRATIVE, COMMERCIAL, FINANCIAL, MANAGERIAL, SUPERVISORY OR FORECASTING PURPOSES, NOT OTHERWISE PROVIDED FOR

G06T

IMAGE DATA PROCESSING OR GENERATION, IN GENERAL (specially adapted for particular applications, see the relevant subclasses, e.g. G01C, G06K, G09G, H04N)

G10B

ORGANS; HARMONIUMS OR LIKE WIND-ACTUATED MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS (mouth organs G10D 7/12; accordions G10D 11/00; aspects of automatic actuation G10F 1/12; combinations of microphones, pick-ups or amplifiers with musical instruments G10H; electronic organs G10H 7/00)

G10C

PIANOS, HARPSICHORDS, SPINETS OR SIMILAR STRINGED MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS WITH ONE OR MORE KEYBOARDS (non-musical aspects of toy pianos A63H 5/00; aspects of automatic actuation G10F; combinations of microphones, pick-ups or amplifiers with musical instruments G10H)

G10D

STRINGED MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS; WIND-ACTUATED MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS; ACCORDIONS OR CONCERTINAS; PERCUSSION MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS; MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS NOT OTHERWISE PROVIDED FOR (automatic musical instruments G10F; combinations of musical instruments with microphones, pick-ups or amplifiers G10H; sound-producing devices not regarded as musical instruments G10K)

G10F

AUTOMATIC MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS (non-musical aspects of toy instruments A63H 5/00; sound-recording or reproducing G11B; working in association with recording or reproducing apparatus G11B 31/02)

G10G

AIDS FOR MUSIC (teaching music G09B 15/00); SUPPORTS FOR MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS; OTHER AUXILIARY DEVICES OR ACCESSORIES FOR MUSIC OR MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS (metronomes G04F 5/02)

G10H

ELECTROPHONIC MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS; INSTRUMENTS IN WHICH THE TONES ARE GENERATED BY ELECTROMECHANICAL MEANS OR ELECTRONIC GENERATORS, OR IN WHICH THE TONES ARE SYNTHESISED FROM A DATA STORE

G10K

SOUND-PRODUCING DEVICES (sound-producing toys A63H 5/00); METHODS OR DEVICES FOR PROTECTING AGAINST, OR FOR DAMPING, NOISE OR OTHER ACOUSTIC WAVES IN GENERAL; ACOUSTICS NOT OTHERWISE PROVIDED FOR [6]

G10L

SPEECH ANALYSIS OR SYNTHESIS; SPEECH RECOGNITION; AUDIO ANALYSIS OR PROCESSING

H04B

TRANSMISSION (transmission systems for measured values, control or similar signals G08C; speech analysis or synthesis G10L; coding, decoding or code conversion, in general H03M; broadcast communication H04H; multiplex systems H04J; secret communication H04K; transmission of digital information H04L; wireless communication networks H04W)

H04H

BROADCAST COMMUNICATION (multiplex communication H04J; pictorial communication aspects of broadcast systems H04N)

H05K

PRINTED CIRCUITS; CASINGS OR CONSTRUCTIONAL DETAILS OF ELECTRIC APPARATUS; MANUFACTURE OF ASSEMBLAGES OF ELECTRICAL COMPONENTS (details of instruments or comparable details of other apparatus not otherwise provided for G12B; thin-film or thick-film circuits H01L 27/01, H01L 27/13; non-printed means for electric connections to or between printed circuits H01R; casings for, or constructional details of, particular types of apparatus, see the relevant subclasses; processes involving only a single technical art, e.g. heating, spraying, for which provision exists elsewhere, see the relevant classes)

H04N

PICTORIAL COMMUNICATION, e.g. TELEVISION

H04R

LOUDSPEAKERS, MICROPHONES, GRAMOPHONE PICK-UPS OR LIKE ACOUSTIC ELECTROMECHANICAL TRANSDUCERS; DEAF-AID SETS; PUBLIC ADDRESS SYSTEMS (generating mechanical vibrations in general B06B; transducers for measuring particular variables G01; transducers in clocks G04; producing sounds with frequency not determined by supply frequency G10K; transducers in recording or reproducing heads G11B; transducers in motors H02)

H04S

STEREOPHONIC SYSTEMS (information storage on discs or tapes G11B; broadcast systems for the distribution of stereophonic information H04H 20/88; multiplex systems in general H04J)

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Breznitz, S.M., Noonan, D.S. Arts districts, universities, and the rise of digital media. J Technol Transf 39, 594–615 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10961-013-9315-x

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