Skip to main content
Log in

Engagement in Vocational Activities Promotes Behavioral Development for Adults with Autism Spectrum Disorders

Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

This study examined the bidirectional relations over time between behavioral functioning (autism symptoms, maladaptive behaviors, activities of daily living) and vocational/educational activities of adults with autism spectrum disorders (ASD). Participants were 153 adults with ASD (M age = 30.2 years) who were part of a larger longitudinal study. Data were collected at two time points separated by 5.5 years. Cross-lag models were used, which accounted for stability over time while testing both directions of cross-lagged effects. Results suggested that greater vocational independence and engagement was related to subsequent reductions in autism symptoms and maladaptive behaviors, and improvements in activities of daily living. Relations between earlier behavioral variables (symptoms, behaviors, and activities of daily living) and later vocational independence were not statistically significant.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Aman, M. G., Lam, K. S. L., & Collier-Crespin, A. (2003). Prevalence and patterns of use of psychoactive medicines among individuals with autism in the Autism Society of Ohio. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 33(5), 527–534.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • American Association on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities. (2010). Intellectual disability: Definition, classification, and systems of supports (11th ed.). Washington, DC: American Association on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities.

    Google Scholar 

  • Baker, J. K., Seltzer, M. M., & Greenberg, J. S. (2011). Longitudinal effects of adaptability on behavior problems and maternal depression in families of adolescents with autism. Journal of Family Psychology, 25(4), 601–609.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Ballaban-Gil, K., Rapin, I., Tuchman, T., & Shinnar, S. (1996). Longitudinal examination of the behavioral, language, and social changes in a population of adolescent and young adults with autistic disorder. Pediatric Neurology, 15(3), 217–223.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Baltes, P. B., Reese, H. W., & Lipsitt, L. P. (1980). Life-span developmental-psychology. Annual Review of Psychology, 31, 65–110.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Billstedt, E., Gillberg, I. C., & Gillberg, C. (2007). Autism in adults: Symptom patterns and early childhood predictors. Use of the DISCO in a community sample followed from childhood. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 48(11), 1102–1110.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Blustein, D. L. (2008). The role of work in psychological health and well-being: A conceptual, historical, and public policy perspective. American Psychologist, 63(4), 228–240.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bollen, K. A., & Curran, P. J. (2006). Latent curve models: A structural equation perspective. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bradley, R. H., Caldwell, B. M., & Elardo, R. (1979). Home environment and cognitive development in the first 2 years: A cross-lagged panel analysis. Developmental Psychology, 15(3), 246–250.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bruininks, R. H., Woodcock, R. W., Weatherman, R. F., & Hill, B. K. (1996). Scales of independent behaviorRevised. Itasca, IL: Riverside Publishing.

  • Cederlund, M., Hagberg, B., Billstedt, E., Gillberg, I. C., & Gillberg, C. (2008). Asperger syndrome and autism: A comparative longitudinal follow-up study more than 5 years after original diagnosis. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 38(1), 72–85.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2012). Prevalence of autism spectrum disorders—Autism and developmental disabilities monitoring network, United States, 2008. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report (MMWR), 61(SS03), 1–19.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cicchetti, D., & Toth, S. L. (2009). The past achievements and future promises of developmental psychopathology: The coming of age of a discipline. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, 50(1–2), 16–25.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Clarke-Stewart, K. A. (1973). Interactions between Mothers and their young children: Characteristics and consequences. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 38(6/7), 1–109.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dawson, G. (2008). Early behavioral intervention, brain plasticity, and the prevention of autism spectrum disorder. Development and Psychopathology, 20(3), 775–803.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dawson, G., Rogers, S., Munson, J., Smith, M., Winter, J., Greenson, J., et al. (2010). Randomized, controlled trial of an intervention for toddlers with autism: The Early Start Denver Model. Pediatrics, 125(1), e17–e23.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • DeNavas-Walt, C., Proctor, B. D., & Mills, R. J. (2004). Income, poverty, and health insurance coverage in the United States: 2003. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dooley, D., & Catalano, R. (1980). Economic change as a cause of behavioral disorder. Psychological Bulletin, 87(3), 450–468.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dove, D., Warren, Z., McPheeters, M. L., Taylor, J. L., Sathe, N. A., & Veenstra-VanderWeele, J. (2012). Medications for adolescents and young adults with autism spectrum disorders: A systematic review. Pediatrics, 130(4), 717–726.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Eaves, L. C., & Ho, H. H. (2008). Young adult outcome of autism spectrum disorders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 38(4), 739–747.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Esbensen, A. J., Mailick, M. R., & Silverman, W. (2013). Long-term impact of parental well-being on adult outcomes and dementia status in individuals with down syndrome. American Journal on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities, 118(4), 294–309.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Farley, M. A., McMahon, W. M., Fombonne, E., Jenson, W. R., Miller, J., Gardner, M., et al. (2009). Twenty-year outcome for individuals with autism and average or near-average cognitive abilities. Autism Research, 2(2), 109–118.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fecteau, S., Mottron, L., Berthiaume, C., & Burack, J. A. (2003). Developmental changes of autistic symptoms. Autism, 7(3), 255–268.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Feldman, D. C. (1996). The nature, antecedents and consequences of underemployment. Journal of Management, 22(3), 385.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Feldman, D. C., & Turnley, W. H. (1995). Underemployment among recent business college graduates. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 16(6), 691–706.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Friedland, D. S., & Price, R. H. (2003). Underemployment: Consequences for the health and well-being of workers. American Journal of Community Psychology, 32(1–2), 33–45.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Garcia-Villamisar, D., Ross, D., & Wehman, P. (2000). Clinical differential analysis of persons with autism in a work setting: A follow-up study. Journal of Vocational Rehabilitation, 14, 183–185.

    Google Scholar 

  • Garcia-Villamisar, D., Wehman, P., & Navarro, M. D. (2002). Changes in the quality of autistic people’s life that work in supported and sheltered employment: A 5-year follow-up study. Journal of Vocational Rehabilitation, 17, 309–312.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gillberg, C., & Steffenburg, S. (1987). Outcome and prognostic factors in infantile autism and similar conditions: A population-based study of 46 cases followed through puberty. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 17(2), 273–287.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Greenberg, J. S., Seltzer, M. M., Hong, J., & Orsmond, G. I. (2006). Bidirectional effects of expressed emotion and behavior problems and symptoms in adolescents and adults with autism. American Journal on Mental Retardation, 111(4), 229–249.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hansen, H. T. (2005). Unemployment and marital dissolution—A panel data study of Norway. European Sociological Review, 21(2), 135–148.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Harris, S. L., & Handleman, J. S. (2000). Age and IQ at intake as predictors of placement for young children with autism: A four- to six-year follow-up. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 30(2), 137–142.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hastings, R. P. (2003). Child behaviour problems and partner mental health as correlates of stress in mothers and fathers of children with autism. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research, 47(Pt 4–5), 231–237.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hastings, R. P., & Brown, T. (2002). Behavior problems of children with autism, parental self-efficacy, and mental health. American Journal on Mental Retardation, 107(3), 222–232.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hill, A., Bolte, S., Petrova, G., Beltcheva, D., Tacheva, S., & Poustka, F. (2001). Stability and interpersonal agreement of the interview-based diagnosis of autism. Psychopathology, 34(4), 187–191.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hollander, E., Novotny, S., Hanratty, M., Yaffe, R., DeCaria, C. M., Aronowitz, B. R., et al. (2003). Oxytocin infusion reduces repetitive behaviors in adults with autistic and Asperger’s disorders. Neuropsychopharmacology, 28(1), 193–198.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Howlin, P., Goode, S., Hutton, J., & Rutter, M. (2004). Adult outcome for children with autism. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 45(2), 212–229.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Howlin, P., Mawhood, L., & Rutter, M. (2000). Autism and developmental receptive language disorder—A follow-up comparison in early adult life. II: Social, behavioural, and psychiatric outcomes. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 41(5), 561–578.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Howlin, P., Moss, P., Savage, S., & Rutter, M. (2013). Social outcomes in mid- to later adulthood among individuals diagnosed with autism and average nonverbal IQ as children. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 52(6), 572–581.e1.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kenny, D. A. (1975). Cross-lagged panel correlation: A test for spuriousness. Psychological Bulletin, 82(6), 887–903.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Landa, R. J., Holman, K. C., & Garrett-Mayer, E. (2007). Social and communication development in toddlers with early and later diagnosis of autism spectrum disorders. Archives of General Psychiatry, 64(7), 853–864.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lecavalier, L. (2006). Behavioral and emotional problems in young people with pervasive developmental disorders: Relative prevalence, effects of subject characteristics, and empirical classification. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 36(8), 1101–1114.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lecavalier, L., Leone, S., & Wiltz, J. (2006). The impact of behavior problems on caregiving stress in young people with autism spectrum disorders. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research, 50(3), 172–183.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lord, C., & Bailey, A. (2002). Autism spectrum disorders. In M. Rutter & E. Taylor (Eds.), Child and adolescent psychiatry (pp. 664–681). Oxford: Blackwell Scientific.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lord, C., Pickles, A., McLennan, J., Rutter, M., Bregman, J., Folstein, S., et al. (1997). Diagnosing autism: Analyses of data from the Autism Diagnostic Interview. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 27(5), 501–517.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lord, C., Rutter, M., & Le Couteur, A. (1994). Autism diagnostic interview—Revised: A revised version of a diagnostic interview for caregivers of individuals with possible pervasive developmental disorders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 24(5), 659–685.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lounds, J. J., Seltzer, M. M., Greenberg, J. S., & Shattuck, P. T. (2007). Transition and change in adolescents and young adults with autism: Longitudinal effects on maternal well-being. American Journal on Mental Retardation, 112(6), 401–417.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Maenner, M. J., Smith, L. E., Hong, J., Makuch, R., Greenberg, J. S., & Mailick, M. R. (2013). Evaluation of an activities of daily living scale for adolescents and adults with developmental disabilities. Disability and Health Journal, 6(1), 8–17.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Mawhood, L., Howlin, P., & Rutter, M. (2000). Autism and developmental receptive language disorder—A comparative follow-up in early adult life. I: Cognitive and language outcomes. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 41(5), 547–559.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McGovern, C. W., & Sigman, M. (2005). Continuity and change from early childhood to adolescence in autism. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 46(4), 401–408.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McKee-Ryan, F. M., Song, Z. L., Wanberg, C. R., & Kinicki, A. J. (2005). Psychological and physical well-being during unemployment: A meta-analytic study. Journal of Applied Psychology, 90(1), 53–76.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mink, I. T., & Nihira, K. (1986). Family life-styles and child behaviors: A study of direction of effects. Developmental Psychology, 22(5), 610–616.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mink, I. T., & Nihira, K. (1987). Direction of effects: Family life styles and behavior of TMR children. American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 92(1), 57–64.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Murphy, G. C., & Athanasou, J. A. (1999). The effect of unemployment on mental health. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 72, 83–99.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Muthen, L. K., & Muthen, B. O. (2009). Mplus 5.21: Statistical analysis with latent variables [software]. Los Angeles, CA: Author.

  • Nihira, K., Meyers, C. E., & Mink, I. T. (1983). Reciprocal relationship between home environment and development of TMR adolescents. American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 88(2), 139–149.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nihira, K., Mink, I. T., & Meyers, C. E. (1985). Home environment and development of slow-learning adolescents: Reciprocal relations. Developmental Psychology, 21(5), 784–794.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Paul, K. I., & Moser, K. (2009). Unemployment impairs mental health: Meta-analyses. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 74(3), 264–282.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Piven, J., Harper, J., Palmer, P., & Arndt, S. (1996). Course of behavioral change in autism: A retrospective study of high-IQ adolescents and adults. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 35(4), 523–529.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Robins, L. N., & Rutter, M. (1990). Straight and devious pathways from childhood to adulthood. Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schafer, J. L., & Graham, J. W. (2002). Missing data: Our view of the state of the art. Psychological Methods, 7(2), 147–177.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schulenberg, J. E., Bryant, A. L., & O’Malley, P. M. (2004). Taking hold of some kind of life: How developmental tasks relate to trajectories of well-being during the transition to adulthood. Development and Psychopathology, 16(4), 1119–1140.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Seltzer, M. M., Greenberg, J. S., Taylor, J. L., Smith, L. E., Orsmond, G. I., Esbensen, A. J., et al. (2011). Adolescents and adults with autism spectrum disorders. In D. G. Amaral, G. Dawson, & D. H. Geschwind (Eds.), Autism spectrum disorders (pp. 241–252). New York: Oxford University Press.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Seltzer, M. M., Krauss, M. W., Shattuck, P. T., Orsmond, G., Swe, A., & Lord, C. (2003). The symptoms of autism spectrum disorders in adolescence and adulthood. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 33(6), 565–581.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Shattuck, P. T., Narendorf, S. C., Cooper, B., Sterzing, P. R., Wagner, M., & Taylor, J. L. (2012). Postsecondary education and employment among youth with an autism spectrum disorder. Pediatrics, 129(6), 1042–1049.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Shattuck, P. T., Seltzer, M. M., Greenberg, J. S., Orsmond, G. I., Bolt, D., Kring, S., et al. (2007). Change in autism symptoms and maladaptive behaviors in adolescents and adults with an autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 37(9), 1735–1747.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Shea, V., & Mesibov, G. B. (2005). Adolescents and adults with autism. In F. R. Volkmar, R. Paul, A. Klin, & D. Cohen (Eds.), Handbook of autism and pervasive developmental disorders (3rd ed., Vol. 1, pp. 312–334). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shepperdson, B. (1995). Two longitudinal studies of the abilities of people with Down Syndrome. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research, 39(5), 419–431.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Smith, L. E., Greenberg, J. S., Seltzer, M. M., & Hong, J. (2008). Symptoms and behavior problems of adolescents and adults with autism: Effects of mother-child relationship quality, warmth, and praise. American Journal on Mental Retardation, 113(5), 387–402.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Smith, L. E., Maenner, M. J., & Seltzer, M. M. (2012). Developmental trajectories in adolescents and adults with autism: The case of daily living skills. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 51(6), 622–631.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Sparrow, S. S., Carter, A. S., & Cicchetti, D. (1993). Vineland screener. New Haven, CT: Yale University, Child Study Center.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sroufe, L. A., & Rutter, M. (1984). The domain of developmental psychopathology. Child Development, 55(1), 17–29.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Taylor, J. L., & Mailick, M. R. (2013). A longitudinal examination of 10-year change in vocational and educational activities for adults with autism spectrum disorders. Developmental Psychology. doi:10.1037/a0034297.

  • Taylor, J. L., McPheeters, M. L., Sathe, N. A., Dove, D., Veenstra-VanderWeele, J., & Warren, Z. (2012). A systematic review of vocational interventions for young adults with autism spectrum disorders. Pediatrics, 130(3), 531–538.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Taylor, J. L., & Seltzer, M. M. (2010). Change in the autism phenotype during the transition to adulthood. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 40(12), 1431–1446.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Taylor, J. L., & Seltzer, M. M. (2011). Employment and post-secondary education activities for young adults with autism spectrum disorders during the transition to adulthood. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 41(5), 566–574.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Taylor, J. L., & Seltzer, M. M. (2012). Developing a vocational index for adults with autism spectrum disorders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 42(12), 2669–2679.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Tomanik, S., Harris, G. E., & Hawkins, J. (2004). The relationship between behaviours exhibited by children with autism and maternal stress. Journal of Intellectual & Developmental Disability, 29(1), 16–26.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tonge, B. J., & Einfeld, S. L. (2003). Psychopathology and intellectual disability: The Australian child to adult longitudinal study. In L. M. Glidden (Ed.), International review of research in mental retardation (Vol. 26, pp. 61–91). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Woodman, A. C., Mailick, M. R., & Greenberg, J. S. (under review). Trajectories of psychopathology among adults with autism.

Download references

Acknowledgments

This project was supported by two grants from Autism Speaks (J.L. Taylor, PI; M.R. Mailick, PI), the National Institute on Aging (R01 AG08768, M.R. Mailick, PI), and the National Institute of Mental Health (K01 MH92598, J.L. Taylor, PI). Core support was provide by the Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (P30 HD15052, E.M. Dykens, PI: P30 HD03352, M.R. Mailick, PI) and the National Center for Research Resources (1 UL1 RR024975).

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Julie Lounds Taylor.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Taylor, J.L., Smith, L.E. & Mailick, M.R. Engagement in Vocational Activities Promotes Behavioral Development for Adults with Autism Spectrum Disorders. J Autism Dev Disord 44, 1447–1460 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-013-2010-9

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-013-2010-9

Keywords

Navigation