Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

External and Internal Factors Influencing Happiness in Elite Collegiate Athletes

  • Original Paper
  • Published:
Child Psychiatry and Human Development Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

When under conditions of high demand and allostatic load, are happiness and satisfaction in four domains (family, friends, academics, recreation) influenced more by external or internal factors? Do student-athletes who lead exceedingly complicated lives report happiness as a function of athletic achievement or internal disposition? Stanford student-athletes (N = 140) were studied with a standardized questionnaire which examined internal factors ((1) locus of control, (2) mindfulness, (3) self-restraint, and (4) self-esteem) to see whether they better account for happiness than external factors (playing time, scholarship). As predicted, internal factors were more powerful correlates of happiness when holding constant demographics. Regression models differed for different aspects of happiness, but the main postulated result of internal versus external was maintained throughout. These findings have implications for how well athletes cope with adversity which, in turn, could shed light on the development of traits that may provide a buffer against adversity and build resilience.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  1. Doyle KO, Youn S (2000) Exploring the traits of happy people. Soc Indic Res 52(2):195–209. doi:10.1023/A:1007017616165

    Article  Google Scholar 

  2. Myers DG, Diener E (1995) Who is happy? Psychol Sci 6(1):10–19. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.1995.tb00298.x

    Article  Google Scholar 

  3. Lyubormirsky S, Tkach C, Dimatteo RM (2006) What are the differences between happiness and self-esteem? Soc Indic Res 78:363–404. doi:10.1007/s11205-005-0213-y

    Article  Google Scholar 

  4. Eysenck HJ (1973) Eysenck on extraversion. Halsted Press, New York, p 174

    Google Scholar 

  5. Costa PT, McCrae RR (1980) Influence of extraversion and neurtocism on subjective well-being: happy and unhappy people. J Pers Soc Psychol 38(4):668–678. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.38.4.668

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  6. Vollrath M, Torgersen S (2000) Personality types and coping. Pers Indiv Difer 29(2):367–378. doi:10.1016/S0191-8869(99)00199-3

    Article  Google Scholar 

  7. Raglin JS (2001) Psychological factors in sport performance. Sports Med 31(12):875–890. doi:10.2165/00007256-200131120-00004

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  8. Gilman R (2001) The relationship between life satisfaction, social interest, and frequency of extracurricular activities among adolescent students. J Youth Adolescence 30(6):749–767. doi:10.1023/A:1012285729701

    Article  Google Scholar 

  9. Judge TA, Bono JE (2001) Relationship of core self-evaluations traits—self-esteem, generalized self-efficacy, locus of control, and emotional stability—with job satisfaction and job performance: a meta-analysis. J Appl Psychol 86(1):80–92. doi:10.1037/0021-9010.86.1.80

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  10. Mattingly MJ, Bianchi SM (2003) Gender differences in the quantity and quality of free time The US experience. Soc Forces 81(3):999–1030. doi:10.1353/sof.2003.0036

    Article  Google Scholar 

  11. Hulley AJ, Hill AJ (2001) Eating disorders and health in elite women distance runners. Int J Eat Disord 30(3):312–317. doi:10.1002/eat.1090

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  12. Hartgens F, Kuipers H (2004) Effects of androgenic-anabolic steroids in athletes. Sports Med 34(8):513–554. doi:10.2165/00007256-200434080-00003

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  13. Wilson GS, Raglin JS, Pritchard ME (2002) Optimism, pessimism, and precompetition anxiety in college athletes. Pers Indiv Difer 32:893–902. doi:10.1016/S0191-8869(01)00094-0

    Article  Google Scholar 

  14. McGraw AP, Mellers BA, Tetlock PE (2005) Expectations and emotions of Olympic athletes. J Exp Soc Psychol 41(4):438-46

    Google Scholar 

  15. Davis JE, Cox RH (2002) Interpreting direction of anxiety with Hanin’s Individual Zone of Optimal Functioning. J Appl Sport Psychol 14(1):43–52. doi:10.1080/10413200209339010

    Article  Google Scholar 

  16. NCAA Estimated probability of competing in athletics beyond the high school interscholastic level (2007) [cited; Available from: http://www.ncaa.org/research/prob_of_competing/

  17. America’s Best Colleges 2008 (2007) [cited 2007 November 26, 2007]

  18. Academic Ranking of World Universities (2007) [cited 2007 November 26, 2007]; Available from: http://www.arwu.org/rank/2004/top500(1-100).htm

  19. Stanford University Common Data Set (2006) [cited 2006 December 5, 2006]; Available from: http://www.stanford.edu/home/statistics/

  20. National Association of Collegiate Directors of Athletics (2006) [cited 2006 December 5, 2006]; Available from: http://nacda.cstv.com/sports/directorscup/spec-rel/062906aaa.html

  21. National Association of Collegiate Directors of Athletics (2007) [cited 2007 June 19, 2007]; Available from: http://nacda.cstv.com/directorscup/nacda-directorscup-current-scoring.html

  22. Mummery K (2005) Depression in Sport. Med Sport 366:S36–S37

    Google Scholar 

  23. Kajtna T etal (2004) Personality in high-risk sports athletes. Kinesiology 36(1):24–34

    Google Scholar 

  24. McKelvie SJ, Lemieux P, Stout D (2003) Extraversion and neuroticism in contact athletes, no contact athletes and non-athletes: a research note. Athletic Insight: Online J Sport Psychol 5(3)

  25. Rasmus P, Kocur J (2006) Personality traits and competition skills in adolescent tennis players. Phys Educ Sport 50:93–95

    Google Scholar 

  26. Kouivula N, Hassmen P, Fallby J (2002) Self-esteem and perfectionism in elite athletes: effects on competitive anxiety and self-confidence. Pers Indiv Difer 32:865–875. doi:10.1016/S0191-8869(01)00092-7

    Article  Google Scholar 

  27. Langer EJ, Moldoveanu M (2000) The construct of mindfulness. J Soc Issues 56(1):1–9. doi:10.1111/0022-4537.00148

    Article  Google Scholar 

  28. Weinberger DA (1997) Distress and self-restraint as measures of adjustment across the life span: confirmatory factory analyses in clinical and nonclinical samples. Psychol Assess 9(2):132–135. doi:10.1037/1040-3590.9.2.132

    Article  Google Scholar 

  29. Baumeister RF etal (2003) Does high self-esteem cause better performance, interpersonal success, happiness, or healthier lifestyles? Psychol Sci Public Interest 4(1):1–44. doi:10.1111/1529-1006.01431

    Article  Google Scholar 

  30. Gilbert D (2006) Stumbling on Happiness. AA Knopf, New York

  31. Kahneman D etal (2006) Would you be happier if you were richer? A focusing illusion. Science 312:1908–1910. doi:10.1126/science.1129688

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  32. Buss DM (2000) The evolution of happiness. Am Psychol 55(1):15–23. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.55.1.15

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  33. DeNeve KM, Cooper H (1998) The happy personality: A meta-analysis of 137 personality traits and subjective well-being. Psychol Bull 124(2):197–229. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.124.2.197

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  34. Digman JM (1990) Personality structure: emergence of the five factor model. Annu Rev Psychol 41: 417–440

    Google Scholar 

  35. Darley JM, Latane B (1968) Bystander intervention in emergencies: diffusion of responsibility. J Pers Soc Psychol 8:377–383. doi:10.1037/h0025589

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  36. Milgram S (1963) Behavioral study of obedience. J Abnorm Soc Psychol 67:371–378. doi:10.1037/h0040525

    Article  Google Scholar 

  37. Costa PT, McCrae RR (1988) Personality in adulthood: a six-year longitudinal study of self-reports and spouse ratings on the neo personality inventory. J Pers Soc Psychol 54(5):853–863. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.54.5.853

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  38. Fleeson W (2004) Moving personality beyond the person-situation debate. Am Psychol Soc 13(2):83–87

    Google Scholar 

  39. Steiner H, Araujo KB, Koopman C (2001) The Response Evaluation Measure (REM-71): a new instrument for the measurement of defenses in adults and adolescents. Am J Psychiatry 158(3):467–473. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.158.3.467

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  40. Rotter JB (1975) Internal versus external control of reinforcement: a case history of a variable. Am Psychol 45(4):489–493. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.45.4.489

    Article  Google Scholar 

  41. Bodner TE, Langer EJ (2001) Individual differences in mindfulness: the mindfulness/mindlessness scale, in Annual American Psychological Society Conference. Canada, Toronto

  42. Langer E (1989) Mindfulness. Addison Wesley, Massachusetts

  43. Csikszentmihalyi M (2000) Flow: the psychology of optimal experience. Harper Perennial, New York

  44. Gardner FL, Moore ZE (2004) A mindfulness-acceptance-commitment based approach to athletic performance enhancement: theoretical considerations. Behav Ther 35:707–723. doi:10.1016/S0005-7894(04)80016-9

    Article  Google Scholar 

  45. Huckaby WJ etal (1998) A comparison between the Weinberger Adjustment Inventory and the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory with incarcerated adolescent males. Child Psychiat Hum Dev 28(4):273–285. doi:10.1023/A:1022640216393

    Article  Google Scholar 

  46. Khanzode L etal (2006) Efficacy profiles of psychopharmacology: divalproex sodium in conduct disorder. Child Psychiat Hum Dev 37:55–64. doi:10.1007/s10578-006-0019-4

    Article  Google Scholar 

  47. Diener E etal (1985) The satisfaction with life scale. J Pers Assess 49:71–75. doi:10.1207/s15327752jpa4901_13

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  48. Lyubormirsky S, Lepper HS (1999) A measure of subjective happiness: preliminary reliability and construct validation. Soc Indic Res 46:137–155. doi:10.1023/A:1006824100041

    Article  Google Scholar 

  49. Steiner H et al (2003) The College Health Related Information Survey (C·H.R.I·S.-73): a screen for college student athletes. Child Psychiat Hum Dev 34(2):97-09. doi:10.1023/A:1027389923666

  50. Stanford University Common Data Set (2007) [cited 2007 December 5, 2007]; Available from: http://www.stanford.edu/home/statistics/

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA

    Katherine G. Denny & Hans Steiner

  2. Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA

    Hans Steiner

Authors
  1. Katherine G. Denny
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Hans Steiner
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Katherine G. Denny.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Denny, K.G., Steiner, H. External and Internal Factors Influencing Happiness in Elite Collegiate Athletes. Child Psychiatry Hum Dev 40, 55–72 (2009). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10578-008-0111-z

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10578-008-0111-z

Keywords

Search

Navigation