Abstract
Exposure to ecotourists often disrupts animal behavior, which is known to contribute to heightened mortality rates. In the Amazon, the emblematic, communal nesting Hoatzin (Opisthocomus hoazin) is frequently pursued by tourists eager for close views. Such encounters may cause heightened stress levels, and egg or nestling predation due to decreased parental attendance to nests and nestlings. The effect of reducing conversational tourist noise near wildlife is poorly understood, but represents one potential mechanism of mitigating the impacts of ecotourists on wildlife. In this study, we approached Hoatzins by canoe, playing recorded tourist conversations at different volumes. Both the distances from which we observed Hoatzins becoming agitated (e.g., clucking, defecation, etc.) and flush (e.g., flight or climbing away) were positively correlated with volume. Within 10 weeks Hoatzins began to habituate to silent approaches. Tourist conversations, however, continued to elicit the same heightened disturbance responses throughout data collection. Therefore, to have the best chance of seeing Hoatzins at a short distance and minimizing potentially negative disturbances, ecotourists should cease all conversation. Although not tested, silence is probably the best strategy when looking for many wildlife species.
Similar content being viewed by others
Abbreviations
- AID:
-
Agitation initiation distance
- FID:
-
Flight initiation distance
References
Blumstein DT (2003) Flight-initiation distance in birds is dependent on intruder starting distance. J Wildl Manage 67:852–857. doi:10.2307/3802692
Burger J, Gochfeld M (1990) Risk discrimination of direct versus tangential approach by basking Black Iguanas (Ctenosaura similis): variation as a function of human exposure. J Comp Psychol 104:388–394. doi:10.1037/0735-7036.104.4.388
Burger J, Gochfeld M (1998) Effects of ecotourists on bird behaviour at Loxahatchee National Wildlife Refuge, Florida. Environ Conserv 25:13–21. doi:10.1017/S0376892998000058
Cairns D (1980) Nesting density, habitat structure and human disturbance as factors in Black Guillemot reproduction. Wilson Bull 92:352–361
Dill LM, Houtman R (1989) The influence of distance to refuge on flight initiation distance in the Gray Squirrel (Sciurus carolinensis). Can J Zool 67:233–235. doi:10.1139/z89-033
Domínguez-Bello MG et al (1994) Ecology of the folivorous Hoatzin (Opisthocomus hoazin) on the Venezuelan plains. Auk 111:643–651
Eckhardt G (2000) The effects of ecotourism on Polar Bear behavior. MS Thesis, University of Central Florida
Ellison LN, Cleary L (1978) Effects of human disturbance on breeding of double-crested cormorants. Auk 95:510–517
Fernández-Juricic E et al (2001) Alert distance as an alternative measure of bird tolerance to human disturbance: implications for park design. Environ Conserv 28:263–269. doi:10.1017/S0376892901000273
Fowler G (1999) Behavioral and hormonal responses of Magellanic Penguins (Spheniscus magellanicus) to tourism and nest site visitation. Biol Conserv 90:143–149. doi:10.1016/S0006-3207(99)00026-9
Geist C et al (2005) Does intruder group size and orientation affect flight initiation distance in birds? Anim Biodivers Conserv 28:69–73
Gillett W et al (1975) Effects of human activity on egg and chick mortality in a Glaucous-winged Gull colony. Cond 77:492–495. doi:10.2307/1366102
Griffiths M, Van Schaik CP (1993) The impact of human traffic on the abundance and activity periods of Sumatran rain forest wildlife. Conserv Biol 7:623–626. doi:10.1046/j.1523-1739.1993.07030623.x
Gutzwiller K et al (1998) Bird tolerance to human intrusion in Wyoming montane forests. Cond 100:519–527. doi:10.2307/1369718
Hidinger L (1996) Measuring the impacts of ecotourism on animal populations: a case study of Tikal National Park, Guatemala. MA Thesis, Duke University
Hunt GL (1972) Influence of food distribution and human disturbance on the reproductive success of Herring Gulls. Ecology 53:1051–1061. doi:10.2307/1935417
Klein ML (1993) Waterbird behavioral responses to human disturbances. Wildl Soc Bull 21:31–39
Klein ML et al (1995) Effects of ecotourism on distribution of waterbirds in a wildlife refuge. Conserv Biol 9:1454–1465. doi:10.1046/j.1523-1739.1995.09061454.x
Martínez-Abraín A et al (2008) Compromise between seabird enjoyment and disturbance: the role of observed and observers. Environ Conserv 35:104–108. doi:10.1017/S0376892908004748
Müllner A (2004) Breeding ecology and related life-history traits of the Hoatzin, Opisthocomus hoazin, in a primary rainforest habitat. Dissertation, Universität Würzburg
Müllner A, Linsenmair E (2007) Nesting behavior and breeding success of Hoatzins. J Field Ornithol 78:352–361
Müllner A et al (2004) Exposure to ecotourism reduces survival and affects stress response in Hoatzin chicks (Opisthocomus hoazin). Biol Conserv 118:549–558. doi:10.1016/j.biocon.2003.10.003
Robert H, Ralph CJ (1975) Effects of human disturbance on the breeding success of gulls. Cond 77:495–499. doi:10.2307/1366103
Safina C, Burger J (1983) Effects of human disturbance on reproductive success in the Black Skimmer. Cond 85:164–171. doi:10.2307/1367250
Stankowich T, Blumstein D (2005) Fear in animals: a meta-analysis and review of risk assessment. Proc R Soc 272:2627–2634. doi:10.1098/rspb.2005.3251
Strahl SD (1988) The social organization and behavior of the Hoatzin Opisthocomus hoazin in central Venezuela. Ibis 130:483–502. doi:10.1111/j.1474-919X.1988.tb02714.x
Ydenberg RC, Dill LM (1986) The economics of fleeing from predators. Adv Study Behav 16:229–249. doi:10.1016/S0065-3454(08)60192-8
Acknowledgments
We would like to extend our gratitude to Rodolfo Dirzo, Bill Durham, and Rainforest Expeditions for their support and guidance throughout the creation and execution of this study. Additionally, this project would not have been possible without the financial support from the Undergraduate Research Programs and the Latin American Studies departments at Stanford University. For assistance with statistical analysis, we would like to thank Dr. Eduardo Mendoza and Dr. Roger Guevara. Finally, we thank Alexander Markham, Matthew Champoux, Cristin Weekley, and Katy McCown for help in data collection.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Karp, D.S., Root, T.L. Sound the stressor: how Hoatzins (Opisthocomus hoazin) react to ecotourist conversation. Biodivers Conserv 18, 3733–3742 (2009). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10531-009-9675-6
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10531-009-9675-6