Skip to main content

Advertisement

Log in

Plant diversity management in cocoa agroforestry systems in West and Central Africa—effects of markets and household needs

  • Published:
Agroforestry Systems Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Cocoa production in humid forest landscapes has been one of the main cash providers of West and Central African economies. Along with the liberalization of the perennial tree sector, there are increased fluctuations of cocoa income. At the same time, the demand and interest for timber production and non-wood forest products have also been increasing. With the continuous disappearance of natural forests, the production of these commodities is being shifted into cocoa agroforests and plantations. In view of helping research and development institutions in promoting sustainable tree crop systems, this paper attempts, for the main cocoa producing countries of West Africa (Cameroon, Nigeria, Ghana and Côte d’Ivoire), to: (1) document the temporal evolution of the market demand for forests and non-wood forest products both at the local and international levels; (2) explore the set of tree species that can be produced in cocoa agroforests of WCA to satisfy this demand. Deforestation resulting partly from the expansion of perennial orchards and slash and burn agriculture is: (i) leading to a shortage of suitable forest land necessary to stabilize or increase national cocoa production and (ii) increasing the gap between the demand and availability/supply of non-wood forest products (NWFP) and timber by reducing the main source of these products—the forest. Demand of these products is increasing with the growth of urban and peri-urban centers. At the same time, perennial agroforestry systems such as cocoa agroforest are increasingly perceived as assets for Payment for Environmental Services (PES) such as carbon storage and biodiversity conservation, because of the potential of the resources that they can generate. These demands of products and payment for ecosystem services that can be provided by sustainable cocoa agroforestry systems depends upon the appropriate combination of cocoa, timber and non-timber forest trees on the same land. Such demands is still to be properly exploited in the region. Cocoa agroforests in West Africa are characterized by fewer species than those of Central Africa. The level of market access influences the types of species that are managed inside cocoa agroforests. Among the species potentially associable with cocoa, those demanded by the local, regional and international markets are not necessarily the ones that are more frequent in the cocoa fields. The gradual reduction of natural forest, from which timber and non-timber products are gathered, aroused the need to integrate the growing of such species in cocoa agroforestry systems.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Ahmed S, Stepp J, Toleno R, Peters C (2010) Increased market integration, value, and ecological knowledge of tea agroforestry in the Akha highlands of southwest China. Ecol Soc 15(4):27

    Google Scholar 

  • Anglaaere LC, Cobbina J, Sinclair FL, McDonald MA (2011) The effect of land use systems on tree diversity: farmer preference and species composition of cocoa-based agroecosystems in Ghana. Agrofor syst 3:249–265

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Anim-Kwapong GJ (2003) Potential of some neotropical Albizia species as shade trees when replanting cacao in Ghana. Agrofor Syst 58(3):185–193

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Asare R, David S, Sonwa D (2009) Conservation and biodiversity in and around cocoa farms. Learning about sustainable cocoa production. A guide for participatory farmer training. Development and Environment Series 12-2009. Forest and Landscape Denmark

  • Aulong S, Duray S, Temple L (2000) Dynamique et structure floristique des agroforets à agrumes au centre du Cameroun. Fruits Paris 55(2):103–114

    Google Scholar 

  • Bisseleua DHB, Vidal S (2008) Plant biodiversity and vegetation structure in traditional cocoa forest gardens in southern Cameroon under different management. Biodivers Conserv 17:1821–1835

  • Bloomfield EM, Lass RA (1992) Impact of structural adjustment and adoption of technology on competitiveness of major cocoa producing countries. Technical Paper No. 69, June. Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), Development Centre, Paris, France

  • Braudeau (1969) Le cacaoyer. Coll Technol Agric Et Pro Trop 304 pp

  • CIFOR (2004) Workshop to develop a regional applied research program in the Congo Basin. [ITTC Decision 10(XXXII)]: pilot study on the social, environmental and economic sustainability of industrial concessions in the Congo Basin, main report, part D: a report prepared for International Tropical Timber Organization. Tokyo, Japan, ITTO. 144 pp

  • Clough Y, Faust H, Tscharntke T (2009) Cacao boom and bust: sustainability of agroforests and opportunities for biodiversity conservation. Conserv Lett 2(5):197–205

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • CNRA (2011) Guide de la lutte contre la maladie du swollen shoot du cacaoyer en Cote d’Ivoire, Première edition. Centre National de Recherche Agronomique/Programme Cacao, Aout

  • Cunningham AB (1993) African medicinal plants—setting priorities at the interface between conservation and primary health care. People and plants working papers No 1

  • Dietsch TV, Philpott SM, Rice RA, Greenberg R, Bichier P (2004) Conservation policy in coffee landscapes. Science 303:625

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Duguma B, Gockowski J, Bakala J (2001) Smallholder cacao (Theobroma cacao Linn.) cultivation in agroforestry systems of West and Central Africa: challenges and opportunities. Agrofor syst 51(3):177–188

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Eba’a Atyi R (1998) Cameroon’s logging industry: structure, economic importance and effects of devaluation. CIFOR Occasional paper No 14. CIFOR, Bogor, Indonesia

  • Falconer J (1990) The major significance of ‘minor’ forest products: the local use and value of forests in the West African humid forest zone. Forest, Trees and People. FAO Community Forestry Note 6. p 232

  • FAO (2001) Non-wood forest products in Africa: a regional and national overview. By Sven Walter, FAO, Rome

  • FAO, IFAD, ILO (2010) Agricultural value chain development: threat or opportunity for women’s employment? ILO Policy Brief #4

  • FIRCA (2008) Guide de la regeneration des vergers de cacaoyer et de cafeier en Cote d’Ivoire. Le Fonds Interprofessionnel pour la Recherche et le Conseil Agricole. République de Côte. 39 pp

  • Franzel S, Jaenicke H, Janssen W (1996) Choosing the right trees: setting priorities for multipurpose tree improvement research. Report 8. ISNAR, The Hague

  • Gockowski JJ, Dury S (1999) The economics of cocoa-fruit agroforests in Southern Cameroon. In: Jiménez F, Beer J (eds) Multi-strata agroforestry systems with perennial crops. CATIE, Turrialba, pp 239–241

    Google Scholar 

  • Gockowski J, Sonwa D (2011) Cocoa intensification scenarios and their predicted impact on CO emissions, biodiversity conservation, and rural livelihoods in the Guinea rain forest of West Africa. Environ Manag 48:307–321

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gockowski J, Weise SF, Sonwa DJ, Tchtat M, Ngobo M (2004) Conservation because it pays: shaded cocoa agroforests in West Africa. IITA-HFC Yaounde. 29 pp

  • Gooding K (2003) Sweet like chocolate? Making the coffee and cocoa trade work for biodiversity and livelihoods, by, The Royal Society for the Protection of Birds (RSPB) and Bird Life International. www.rspb.org.uk/Images/Sweet%20Like%20Chocolate%205%20dec_tcm5-48253.pdf. Accessed Dec 2003

  • Herzog F, Farah Z, Amadò R (1994) Composition and consumption of gathered wild fruits in the V-Baoulé, Côte d’Ivoire. Ecol Food Nutr 32:181–269

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Herzog F, Gautier-Béguin D, Müller K (1998) Uncultivated plants for human nutrition in Côte d’Ivoire. In: Leakey RRB, Temu AB, Melnyk M (eds) Domestication and commercialization of non-timber forest products. Non-Wood Forest Products No. 9, FAO, Rome

    Google Scholar 

  • IITO (2011) Status of Tropical Forest Management 2011. http://www.itto.int/sfm/

  • ITTO (2003) ITTO’s annual review and assessment of the world timber situation. Tokyo, Japan, ITTO. 230 pp

  • Jagoret P, Michel-Dounias I, Male´zieux E (2011) Long-term dynamics of cocoa agroforests: a case study in central Cameroon. Agrofor Syst 81:267–278

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jagoret P, Michel-Dounias I, Snoeck D, Ngnogue H, Male´zieux E (2012) Afforestation of savannah with cocoa agroforestry systems: a small-farmer innovation in central Cameroon. Agrofor Syst 86:493–504

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kouebou C, Goygoy F, Bourou S, Kosga Djakissam P, Layla H, Zenabou G, Barbi M, Vunyingah M, Woin N (2013) Biodiversité et valeur alimentaire des fruits au Cameroun: observations préliminaires dans le Département de la Bénoué (Région du Nord). J Appl Biosci 69:5523–5533

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Leakey RRB (1998) Agroforestry in the humid lowlands of West Africa: some reflections on future directions for research. Agrofor Syst 40:253–262

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Manu M, Tetteh EK (ed) (1987) A guide to cocoa cultivation. Cocoa Research Institute of Ghana (CRIG), New Tafo

  • Millard E (2011) Incorporating agroforestry approaches into commodity value chains. Environ Manag 48:365–377

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mollet M, Tiki-Manga J, Kengue J, Tchoundjeu Z (1995) The «Top 10» species in Cameroon: a survey of farmers’ views on trees. Agrofor Today 1995:14–16

    Google Scholar 

  • Ndoye O (1995) The markets for non timber forest products in the humid forest zone of Cameroon and its borders: structure, conduct, performance and policy implications. Report to CIFOR, Bogor, Indonesia. p 86

  • Ndoye O, Ruiz Pérez M, Eyebe A (1997) The markets of non-timber forest products in the Humid Forest Zone of Cameroon. ODI Rural Development Forestry Network, Paper 22c

  • N’Goran K (2003) Reflections on a durable cacao production system: the situation in the Ivory Coast, Africa. Paper from workshop held in Panama, 3/30–4/2, 1998. Smithsonian institution. Washington, DC

  • Oke DO, Odebiyi KA (2007) Traditional cocoa-based agroforestry and forest species conservation in Ondo State, Nigeria. Agric Ecosyst Environ 122(3):305–311

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Oke D, Olatiilu A (2011) Carbon storage in agroecosystems: a case study of the cocoa based agroforestry in Ogbese Forest Reserve, Ekiti State, Nigeria. J Environ Prot 02:1069–1075

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Opoku IY, Akrofi AY, Appiah AA (2002) Shade trees are alternative hosts of the cocoa pathogen Phytophthora megakarya. Crop Prot 21(8):629–634

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Osei-Bonsu K, Opoku-Ameyaw K, Amoah FM, Oppong FK (2002) Cacao-coconut intercropping in Ghana: agronomic and economic perspectives. Agrofor Syst 55(1):1–8

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Osei-Bonsu K, Ameyaw Oduro C, Tetteh JP (2004) Traditional cocoa agroforestry: species encountered in the cocoa ecosystem of a typical cocoa growing district in Ghana (poster). In: 14th International Cocoa Research Conference, 13–18 Oct 2003, Accra, Ghana

  • Pacheco P, Aguilar-Støen M, Börner J, Etter A, Putzel L, Diaz MDCV (2010) Landscape transformation in tropical Latin America: assessing trends and policy implications for REDD+. Forests 2(1):1–29

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Padi B, Owusu GK (2003) Towards an integrated pest management for sustainable cocoa production in Ghana. In: Paper from workshop held in Panama, 3/30–4/2, 1998. Smithsonian Institution, Washington DC

  • Peters CM, Gentry AH, Mendelsohn RO (1989) Valuation of and Amazonian rain forest. Nature 339:655–656

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Petihuguenin P (1995) Cacaoculture et évolution du milieu, une contribution à la réflexion sur la reproductibilité de ces écosystèmes de culture. In: Pichot JN, Sibellet JJ, Lacoeuilhe (eds). Fertilité du Milieu et stratégies paysannes sous les tropiques humides. CIRAD, Montpellier, pp 340–349

  • Robiglio V, Guillaume L, Paolo C (2013) From farmers to loggers: the role of shifting cultivation landscapes in timber production in Cameroon. Small Scale For 12(1):67–68

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ruf F, Zadi H (2003) Cocoa: from deforestation to reforestation. Paper from workshop held in Panama, 3/30–4/2, 1998. Smithsonian Institution. Washington, DC

  • Ruiz-Perez M, Ndoye O, Eyebe A (1999) Marketing of non-wood forest products in the humid forest zone of Cameroon. Unasylva 50(198):12–19

    Google Scholar 

  • Ruiz-Pérez M, Belcher B, Achdiawan R, Alexiades M, Aubertin C, Caballero J, Campbell B, Clement C, Cunningham T, Fantini A, de Foresta H, García Fernández C, Gautam KH, Hersch Martínez P, de Jong W, Kusters K, Kutty MG, López C, Fu M, Martínez Alfaro MA, Nair TR, Ndoye O, Ocampo R, Rai N, Ricker M, Schreckenberg K, Shackleton S, Shanley P, Sunderland T, Youn Y (2004) Markets drive the specialization strategies of forest peoples. Ecol Soc 9(2):4. http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol9/iss2/art4

  • Schroth G, da Fonseca GAB, Harvey CA, Vasconcelos HL, Izac AM (2004) Agroforestry and biodiversity conservation in tropical landscapes. Island Press, Washington, DC

    Google Scholar 

  • Shapiro HY, Rosenquist EM (2004) Public/private partnerships in agroforestry: the example of working together to improve cocoa sustainability. Agrofor Syst 61:453–462

    Google Scholar 

  • Smith Dumont E, Gnahoua G, Ohouo L, Sinclair FL, Vaast P (2014) Farmers in Cote d'Ivoire value tree diversity for the provision of ecosystem services. Agrofor Syst. doi:10.1007/s10457-014-9679-4

  • Sonwa DJ, Weise SF, Tchatat M, Nkongmeneck AB, Adesina, A., Ndoye, O. et Gockowski, J (2000) Les agroforêts cacao: espace intégrant développement de la cacaoculture, gestion et conservation des ressources forestières au Sud-Cameroun. Paper presented at the second Pan African Symposium on The sustainable use of Natural resources in Africa. Ouagadougou, Burkina Fasso, 24–27 July 2000

  • Sonwa, DJ, Weise SF, Tchatat M, Nkongmeneck BA, Adesina AA, Ndoye O, Gockowski J (2001) The role of cocoa agroforests in rural and community forestry in Southern Cameroon. Rural Develop For Netw Paper 25g:1–10. Overseas Development Institute, London

  • Sonwa DJ (2004) Biomass management and diversification within cocoa agroforest in the humid forest zone of southern Cameroon. Ph.D. Thesis, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Bonn.Germany, Cuvillier Verlag, Goettingen, 112 pp

  • Sonwa DJ, Weise SF, Janssens M (2002) Etude de cas d’aménagement forestier exemplaire en Afrique centrale: les systèmes agroforestiers cacaoyers Cameroun. Document de travail en aménagement forestier FM/12F. http://www.fao.org/docrep/008/ae732f/ae732f00.htm

  • Sonwa DJ, Okafor JC, Mpungi Buyungu P, Weise SF, Tchatat M, Adesina AA, Nkongmeneck AB, Ndoye O, Endamana D (2002b) Dacryodes edulis, a neglected non-timber forest species for the agroforestry system of West and Central Africa. For Trees Livelihoods 12:41–45

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sonwa DJ, Weise SF, Ndoye O, Janssens MJJ (2003) Promotion des agroforêts cacao en Afrique de l’ouest et centrale (AOC). Contribution 12ieme congres forestier mondial organisee par la FAO. Sous le theme, La forêt, source de Vie. Du 21 au 28 Septembre 2003, Quebec. http://www.fao.org/docrep/ARTICLE/WFC/XII/0478-B5.HTM

  • Sustainable Agricultural Network (SAN) (2009) Interpretation guidelines—indicators for sustainable cocoa production in Ivory Coast, Sustainable Agriculture Program Rainforest Alliance, Costa Rica

  • Tabuna H (2000) Evaluation des échanges des produits forestiers non ligneux entre l’Afrique Subsaharienne et l’Europe. mai, 2000, FAO, Accra

  • Temple L (1999). Le marché des fruits et légumes au Cameroun. Bulletin technique. CIRAD—IRAD (ed) Yaoundé, Cameroun. p 163

  • Temple L (2001) Quantification des productions et des échanges de fruits et légumes au Cameroun. Cahiers d’études et de recherches francophones/Agricultures, vol 10, Numéro 2, 87–94, Etudes originales

  • Tscharntke T, Clough Y, Bhagwat SA, Buchori D, Faust H, Hertel D, Juhrbandt J, Kessler M, Perfecto I, Scherber C, Schroth, G, Veldkamp E, Wanger TC (2011) Multifunctional shade-tree management in tropical agroforestry landscapes—a review. J Appl Ecol 48:619–629

  • Van Himme M, Snoeck J (2001) Cacaoyer. Theobroma cacao L. In: Raemaekers RH (ed) Agriculture en Afrique tropicale. DGCI-Bruxelles, Belgique, pp 942–978

    Google Scholar 

  • van Vliet N, Mertz O, Heinimann A, Langanke T, Pascual U, Schmook B, Adams C, Schmidt-Vogt D, Messerli P, Leisz S, Castella JC, Jørgensen L, Birch-Thomsen T, Hett C, Bech-Bruun T, Ickowitz A, Vu KC, Yasuyuki K, Fox J, Padoch C, Dressler W, Ziegler AD (2012) Trends, drivers and impacts of changes in swidden cultivation in tropical forest-agriculture frontiers: a global assessment. Glob Environ Change 22(2):418–429. doi:10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2011.10.009

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Walter S (2001) Non-wood forest products in Africa: a regional and national overview. FAO, Rome

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

This paper was written with the support of the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA), Sustainable Tree Crops Program (STCP, a public private partnership program between USAID, IITA and Chocolate industries) and Mars Inc. We thank Susan Hoefs and Shu Gideon Neba for their comments on earlier versions of the document.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Denis J. Sonwa.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Sonwa, D.J., Weise, S.F., Schroth, G. et al. Plant diversity management in cocoa agroforestry systems in West and Central Africa—effects of markets and household needs. Agroforest Syst 88, 1021–1034 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10457-014-9714-5

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10457-014-9714-5

Keywords

Navigation