Abstract
Archaeologists are interested in understanding whether cross-cultural contact catalyzed by exchange of commodities is a means for people to acquire new technology and cultural ideas. This paper reports the results and analysis of archaeological investigations in Tsavo National Park, Kenya in 2001 and 2004 that have recovered evidence of indirect contact between late pastoral neolithic (PN) herders and early iron working (EIW) communities. Analysis of stylistic motifs on ceramics used by both PN and EIW people show that socially constructed notions of aesthetics are similar, implying that a strong cultural connection between the two groups may be possible. New lexico-statistical analyses and archaeological data from Tanzania corroborate that the prehistoric East African milieu was more complex than previously believed. However, pastoralists in Tsavo show no evidence of utilizing iron technology or altering their subsistence strategies among the > 10,000 artifacts spanning 4,000+ years of prehistory recovered in the 2001 field season. Thus, long-distance and long-term contact between socially connected groups possessing different technological and subsistence foundations does not necessarily lead to a diffusion of new survival strategies.
Les archéologues sont intéressés à comprendre la diffusion technologique et culturelle préhistorique [Les archeologues se sont interestesa comprendre la diffusion prehistorique de la technologie et de la culture]. Le contact entre les cultures catalysées par l'échange des produits est des moyens pour que les personnes acquièrent la nouvelle technologie et les idées culturelles. Cependant, le point auquel certaines idées sont acceptées ou rejetées demeure irrésolu. [Quand le contact contre-culturelle s'allie avec l'exchange de produits, les deux fournissent les nouvelles idees culturelles et technologiques aux gens. Mais, le point d D'autres données sont nécessaires pour augmenter nos compréhension de l'échange des idées entre les groupes de personnes et comment des changements de technologie. Les investigations archéologiques en parc national de Tsavo, Kenya dans 2001 ont récupéré l'évidence du contact indirect entre les bouviers néolithiques pastoraux (PN) en retard et les premières communautés du fondre de fer (EIW). L'analyse des motifs stylistiques sur la céramique utiliser par des personnes de PN et d'EIW prouvent que les notions socialement construites de l'esthétique sont semblables, impliquant qu'un raccordement culturel fort entre les deux groupes peut être possible. Les nouvelles analyses lexico-statistiques et les données archéologiques de Tanzanie corroborent que le milieu africain est préhistorique était plus complexe que précédemment cru. Cependant, les bouviers préhistorique dans Tsavo ne montrent aucune évidence d'utiliser la technologie de fer ou de changer leurs stratégies de subsistance parmi les > 10.000 objets façonnés enjambant les années 4.000+ de la préhistoire récupérées dans la saison de 2001 champs. Ainsi, contact à longue distance et long terme entre les groupes socialement reliés possédant différentes bases technologiques et de subsistance ne mène pas nécessairement à une diffusion de nouvelles strategies de survival.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Abungu, G. H. O. (1989). Communities on the River Tana, Kenya: An archaeological study of relations between the delta and the river basin 700–1890. PhD Thesis, Cambridge University, Cambridge.
Abungu, G. H. O. (1994–1995). Agriculture and settlement formation along the East African coast. Azania 29–30: 248–256.
Abungu, G. H. O., and Mutoro, H. (1993). Coast-interior settlements and social relations in the Kenya coastal hinterland. In Shaw, T., Sinclair, P. J. J., Andah, B., and Okpoko, A. (eds.), The archaeology of Africa: Food, metals and towns. Routledge, London, pp. 694–704.
Alexander, J. (1980). The spread and development of iron-using in Europe and Africa. In Leakey, R. E., and Ogot, B. A. (eds.), Proceedings of the 8th Panafrican Congress of Prehistory and Quaternary Studies. The International Louis Leakey Memorial Institute for African Prehistory, Nairobi, pp. 327–330.
Allen, J. D. V. (1993). Swahili Origins. James Currey, London.
Ambrose, S. H. (1984a). Excavations at Deloraine, Ronga, 1978. Azania 19: 79–104.
Ambrose, S. H. (1984b). Holocene Environments and Human Adaptations in the Central Rift Valley, Kenya. PhD Thesis, University of California, Berkeley.
Areola, O. (1996). Soils. In Adams, W. M., Goudie, A. S., and Orme, A. R. (eds.), The Physical Geography of Africa. Oxford University Press, Oxford, pp. 136–147.
Balkansky, A. K., Kowalewski, S. A., Rodriguez, V. P., Pluckhahn, T. J., Smith, C. A., Stiver, L. R., Beliaev, D., Chamblee, J. F., Espinoza, V. Y. H., and Perez, R. S. (2000). Archaeological survey in the Mixteca Alta of Oaxaca, Mexico. Journal of Field Archaeology 27: 365–389.
Barbour, J., and Wandibba, S. (eds.) (1989). Kenyan Pots and Potters. Oxford University Press, Nairobi.
Barth, F. (1956). Ecological Relationships of Ethnic Groups in Swat, North Pakistan. American Anthropologist 58: 1079–1089.
Barth, F. (1961). Nomads of South Persia–-The Basseri Tribe of the Khamseh Confederacy. Little Brown& Co., Boston.
Barth, F. (1969). Introduction. In Barth, F. (ed.). Ethnic Groups and Boundaries: The Social Organization of Culture Differences. Universitets Forlaget, Bergen, pp. 9–38.
Bates, D. G. (1972). Differential access to pasture in a nomadic society: The Yörük of southeastern Turkey. In Irons, W., and Dyson-Hudson, N. (eds.), Perspectives on Nomadism. E. J. Brill, Leiden, The Netherlands, pp. 48–59.
Behnke, R. H. (1980). The Herders of Cyrenaica. University of Illinois Press, Urbana.
Bollig, M. (1998). Moral economy and self-interest: Kinship, friendship, and exchange among the Pokot (N. W. Kenya). In Schweizer, T., and White, D. R. (eds.), Kinship, Networks, and Exchange. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 137–157.
Bower, J. R. F. (1991). The pastoral neolithic of East Africa. Journal of World Prehistory 5: 49–82.
Bower, J. R. F., and Nelson, C. M. (1978). Early pottery and pastoral cultures of the Central Rift Valley, Kenya. Man 13: 554–566.
Bower, J. R. F., Nelson, C. M., Waibel, A. F., and Wandibba, S. (1977). The University of Massachusetts' Later Stone Age/Pastoral ‘Neolithic’ comparative study in Central Kenya: An overview. Azania 12: 119–146.
Buckle, C. (1996). Weather and Climate in Africa. Longman, Essex, England.
Burton, R. (1872). Zanzibar: City, Island, and Coast. Tinsely Brothers, London.
Cable, C. (1987). Forager-farmer interactions in Kenyan prehistory or “what happened to the hunters?” Staff Seminar Paper No. 5. Department of History, University of Nairobi, Nairobi
Cassey, J. (1998). The ecology of food production in West Africa. In Connah, G. (ed.), Transformations in Africa: Essays on Africa's Later Past. Leicester University Press, London, pp. 48–70.
Casson, L. (1989). The Periplus Maris Erythraei. Princeton University Press, Princeton.
Chami, F. A. (1994). The Tanzanian Coast in the First Millennium AD. Societas Archaeologica Upsalensis, Uppsala, Sweden.
Chami, F. A. (1994–1995). The First Millennium AD on the East Coast: A new look at the cultural sequence and interactions. Azania 29–30: 232–237.
Chami, F. A. (1998). A review of Swahili archaeology. African Archaeological Review 15: 199–218.
Chami, F. A. (1999). Roman beads from the Rufiji Delta, Tanzania: First incontrovertible archaeological link with the Periplus. Current Anthropology 40: 237–241.
Chami, F. A., and Kweksason, A. (2003). Neolithic pottery traditions from the islands, the coast and the interior of East Africa. African Archaeological Review 20: 65–80.
Chapman, S. (1966). A Sirikwa hole on Mount Elgon. Azania 1: 139–148.
Collett, D. P. (1985). The Spread of Early Iron Producing Communities in Eastern and Southern Africa. PhD Thesis, Cambridge University, Cambridge.
Collett, D. P., and Robertshaw, P. T. (1980). Early Iron Age and Kansyore pottery: Finds from Gogo Falls, South Nyanza. Azania 15: 133–145.
Collett, D. P., and Robertshaw, P. T. (1983). Pottery traditions of early pastoral communities in Kenya. Azania 18: 107–125.
Connah, G. (1987). African Civilizations: Precolonial Cities and States in Tropical Africa, An Archaeological Perspective. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Coquery-Vidrovitch, C. (1971). Research into the African Mode of Production. United Nations Institute for Economic Development and Planning.
Coquery-Vidrovitch, C. (1988). Developpement et societes Africaines: Les facteurs de freinage. In Coquery-Vidrovitch, C., Hemery, D., and Piel, J. (eds.), Pour une Histoire du Developpement: Etats, Societes, Developpement. L'Harmattan, Paris, pp. 113–126.
Coquery-Vidrovitch, C. (1991). The process of urbanization in Africa (from the origins to the beginning of independence). African Studies Review 34: 1–98.
David, N. (1982). The design of archaeological processing systems with special reference to that employed at Lake Vouliagmeni, Greece. Journal of Field Archaeology 9: 237–241.
de Barros, P. (1997). Iron working in its cultural context. In Vogel, J. O. (ed.), Encyclopedia of Precolonial Africa. Alta Mira, Walnut Creek, CA, pp. 135–149.
de Maret, P. (1999). The power of symbols and the symbols of power through time: Probing the Luba past. In McIntosh, S. K. (ed.), Beynd Chiefdoms: Pathways to Complexity in Africa. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 151–165.
Denbow, J. R. (1984). Prehistoric herders and foragers of the Kalahari: The evidence for 1500 years of interaction. In Schrire, C. (ed.), Past and Present in Hunter-Gatherer Societies. Academic Press, Orlando, pp. 175–193.
Diblasi, M. C. (1986). Iron Age Settlement and Ceramics in the Ithanga Hills of Central Kenya: Behavioral Inferences from Archaeological and Ethnohistorical Evidence, Boston University, Boston.
Dietler, M., and Herbich, I. (1989). Tich Matek: The technology of Luo pottery production and the definition of ceramic style. World Archaeology 21: 148–164.
Duarte, R. T. (1993). Northern Mozambique in the Swahili World. Central Board of Antiquities, Uppsala, Sweden.
Ehret, C. (1998). An African Classical Age: Eastern and Southern Africa in World Prehistory History, 1000 BC to AD 400. University Press of Virginia, Charlottesville.
Ehret, C. (2001). Bantu expansions: Re-envisioning a central problem of early African history. The International Journal of African Historical Studies 34: 5–41.
Ehret, C. (2002). Language family expansions: Broadening our understandings of cause from an African perspective. In Bellwood, P., and Renfrew, C. (eds.), Examining theFarming/Language Dispersal Hypothesis. University of Cambridge Press, Cambridge, UK, pp. 163–176.
Evans-Pritchard, E. E. (1940). The Nuer. Claredon Press, Oxford.
Fagan, B. M. (1972). Ingombe Ilede: Early trade in South Central Africa. Addison-Wesley Module in Anthropology: 1–34.
Falconer, S. E. (1995). Rural responses to early urbanism: Bronze Age household and village economy at Tell el-Hayyat, Jordan. Journal of Field Archaeology 22: 399–419.
Flight, C. (1980). Guthrie and the reconstruction of Bantu prehistory. History in Africa 7: 81–118.
Fortes, M., and Evans-Pritchard, E. E. (eds.) (1940). African Political Systems. Oxford University Press, Oxford.
Freeman-Grenville, G. S. P. (1962a). The East African Coast: Select Documents from the First to the Nineteenth Century. Clareton Press, Oxford.
Freeman-Grenville, G. S. P. (1962b). The Medieval History of the Coast of Tanganyika. Oxford University Press, Oxford.
Galaty, J. G. (1993). Maasai expansion and the new East African pastoralism. In Spear, T., and Waller, R. (eds.), Being Maasai: Ethnicity and Identity in East Africa. James Currey, London, pp. 61–86.
Garlake, P. S. (1968). The value of imported ceramics in the dating and interpretation of the Rhodesian Iron Age. Journal of African History 9: 13–33.
Gasse, F. (2000). Hydrological changes in the African tropics since the Last Glacial Maximum. Quaternary Science Reviews 19: 189–211.
Gillson, L. (2004). Testing non-equilibrium theories in savannas: 1400 years of vegetation change in Tsavo National Park, Kenya. Ecological Complexity 1: 281–298.
Gillson, L., Sheridan, M., and Brockington, D. (2003). Representing environments in flux: Case studies from East Africa. Area 35: 371–389.
Gillson, L., Waldron, S., and Willis, K. J. (2004). Interpretation of soil d13C as an indicator of vegetation change in African savannas. Journal of Vegetation Science 15: 339–350.
Grzymski, K. (2004). Landscape archaeology of Nubia and Central Sudan. African Archaeological Review 21: 7–30.
Gulliver, P. H. (1955). The Family Herds. Routledge, London.
Guthrie, M. (1962). Some developments in the prehistory of the Bantu languages. Journal of African History 3: 273–282.
Guthrie, M. (1963). Bantu origins: A tentative new hypothesis. Journal of African Languages 1: 9–21.
Håland, R., and Msuya, C. S. (2000). Pottery production, iron working and trade: The case of Dakwa (central Tanzania). Azania 35: 75–106.
Hall, M. (1984). Pots and politics: Ceramic interpretations in southern Africa. World Archaeology 15: 262–273.
Hamilton, A. C. (1982). Environmental History of East Africa. Academic Press, London.
Helms, M. W. (1993). Craft and the Kingly Ideal: Art, Trade, and Power. University of Texas Press, Austin.
Hodder, I. (1977). The distribution of material culture: Items in the Baringo District, Western Kenya. Man 12: 239–269.
Hoelzmann, P., Keding, B., Berke, H., Kropelin, S., and Kruse, H. J. (2001). Environmental change and archaeology: Lake evolution and human occupation in the eastern Sahara during the Holocene. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 169: 193–217.
Hole, F. (1984). Analysis of structure and design in prehistoric ceramics. World Archaeology 15: 326–347.
Holl, A. F. C. (1986). Economie et Societe Neolithique du Dhar Tichitt (Mauritanie). ADPF, Paris.
Holl, A. F. C. (2000). Metals and precolonial African society. In Vogel, J. O. (ed.), Ancient African Metallury: The Sociocultural Context. Alta Mira, Walnut Creek, CA, pp. 1–82.
Hopen, C. E. (1958). The Pastoral Fulbe Family in Gwandu. Oxford University Press, London.
Horton, M. C. (1984). The Early Settlement of the Northern Kenya Coast. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Horton, M. C. (1987). Early Muslim trading settlements on the East African coast: New evidence from Shanga. Antiquaries Journal 67: 290–322.
Horton, M. C. (1990). The Periplus and East Africa. Azania 25: 95–99.
Horton, M. C. (1996). Shanga: The Archaeology of a Muslim Trading Community on the Coast of East Africa. The British Institute in Eastern Africa, London.
Horton, M. C., and Middleton, J. (2000). The Swahili: The Social Landscape of a Mercantile Society. Blackwell Publishers, Oxford.
Irons, W. (1972). Variation in economic organization: A comparison of the pastoral Yomut and the Basseri. In Irons, W., and Dyson-Hudson, N. (eds.), Perspectives on Nomadism. E. J. Brill, Leiden, The Netherlands, pp. 88–104.
Kealhofer, L. (2003). Looking into the gap: Land use and the tropical forests of southern Thailand. Asian Perspectives 42: 72–95.
Kenyatta, J. (1938). Facing Mount Kenya. Secker& Warberg, London.
Kingery, W. D. (1981). Plausible inferences from ceramic artifacts. Journal of Field Archaeology 8: 457–467.
Krapf, J. L. (1968 [1860]). Travels, Researches, and Missionary Labours during an Eighteen Years' Residence in Eastern Africa. Frank Cass and Company, Ltd., London.
Kusimba, C. M. (1993). The Archaeology and Ethnography of Iron Metallurgy on the Kenya Coast. PhD Thesis, Bryn Mawr University, Philadelphia, PA.
Kusimba, C. M. (1996). Social context of iron forging on the Kenya Coast. Africa 63: 194–210.
Kusimba, C. M. (1999a). Material symbols among the precolonial Swahili of the East African coast. In Robb, J. E. (ed.), Material Symbols: Culture and Economy in Prehistory. Southern Illinois University, Carbondale.
Kusimba, C. M. (1999b). The Rise and Fall of Swahili States. Alta Mira, Walnut Creek, CA.
Kusimba, C. M., Kusimba, S. B., and Wright, D. K. (in press). The development and collapse of precolonial ethnic mosaics in Tsavo, Kenya. Journal of African Archaeology.
Kusimba, S. B. (2003). African Foragers: Environment, Technology, Interactions. Alta Mira, Walnut Creek, CA.
Kyule, M. D. (1997). The Sirikwa economy: Further work at Site II on Hyrax Hill. Azania 32: 21–30.
Leakey, M. D. (1966). Excavation of burial mounds in Ngorongoro Crater. Tanzania Notes and Records 66: 123–135.
Leroux, M. (2001). The Meteorology and Climate of Tropical Africa. Springer, London.
Levtzion, N., and Pouwels, R. L. (2000). Patterns of Islamization and varieties of religious experience among Muslims of Africa. In Pouwels, R. L. (ed.), The History of Islam in Africa. Ohio University Press, Athens, pp. 1–18.
Marshall, F. (1990). Origins of specialized pastoral production in East Africa. American Anthropologist 92: 873–894.
Mazrui, A. M., and Shariff, I. N. (1994). The Swahili: Idiom and Identity of an African People. Africa World Press, Trenton, NJ.
McIntosh, R. J. (1991). Early urban clusters in China and Africa: The arbitration of social ambiguity. Journal of Field Archaeology 18: 199–212.
McIntosh, R. J. (1993). The pulse model: Genesis and accommodation of specialization in the Middle Niger. Journal of African History 34: 181–220.
McIntosh, R. J. (1998). The Peoples of the Middle Niger. Blackwell, Malden, MA.
McIntosh, S. K. (1997). Urbanism in sub-saharan Afirca. In Vogel, J. O. (ed.), Encyclopedia of Precolonial Africa. Alta Mira, Walnut Creek, CA, pp. 461–465.
McIntosh, S. K. (1999). Pathways to complexity: An African perspective. In McIntosh, S. K. (ed.), Beyond Chiefdoms: Pathways to Complexity in Africa. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 1–30.
Mercader, J., Garci-Heras, M., and Gonzalez-Alvarez, I. (2000). Ceramic tradition in the African forest: Characterisation analysis of ancient and modern pottery from Ituri, D.R. Congo. Journal of Archaeological Science 27: 163–182.
Middleton, J. (1953). The Central Tribes of the North-Eastern Bantu, Part 5. International African Institute, London.
Middleton, J. (1992). The World of the Swahili: An African Mercantile Civilization. Yale University Press, New Haven, CT.
Misago, K. (1996). Ceramics from the Upemba Depression: A diachronic study. In Arnoldi, M. J., Geary, C. M., and Hardin, K. L. (eds.), African Material Culture. Indiana University Press, Bloomington, pp. 103–129.
Munson, P. J. (1971). The Tichitt Tradition: A Late Prehistoric Occupation of the Southwestern Sahara. PhD Thesis, Univerity of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign.
Mutoro, H. W. (1987). An Archaeological Study of the Mijikenda Kaya Settlements on Hinterland Kenya Coast. PhD Dissetation, University of California–-Los Angeles, Los Angeles.
Mutoro, H. W. (1998). Precolonial trading systems of the East African interior. In Connah, G. (ed.), Transformations in Africa: Essays on Africa's Later Past. Leicester University Press, Leicester, UK, pp. 186–203.
Ndong, A. A. (2002). Synthesis of recent archaeological data about the settlement of the fauna reserve of Lope during the Holocene. Anthropologie 106: 135–158.
Nelson, C. M. (1993). Evidence for early trade between the coast and interior of East Africa. Paper presented at WAC Mombassa Intercongress Conference Volume.
Nurse, D., and Hinnebusch, T. J. (1993). Swahili and Sabaki: A Linguistic History. University of California Press, Berkeley.
Nurse, D., and Spear, T. (1985). The Swahili: Reconstructing the History and Language of an African Society, 800–1500. University of Pennsylvania Press, Philadelphia.
Odner, K. (1972). Excavations at Narosura: A stone bowl site in the southern Kenyan highlands. Azania 7: 25–92.
O'Leary, M. (1984). The Kitui Akamba: Economic and Social Change in Semi-Arid Kenya. Heinemann Educational Books, Nairobi.
Oliver, R. (1966). The problem of Bantu expansion. Journal of African History 7: 361–367.
Ominde, S. H. (1979). Ecology and man in East Africa. In Ogot, B. A. (ed.), Ecology and History in East Africa: Proceedings of the 1975 Conference of the Historical Association of Kenya. Kenya Literature Bureau, Nairobi, pp. 9–23.
Onyango-Abuje, J. C., and Wandibba, S. (1979). The palaeoenvironment and its influence on man's activities in East Africa during the latter part of Upper Pleistocene and Holocene. In Ogot, B. A. (ed.), Ecology and History in East Africa: Proceedings of the 1975 Conference of the Historical Association of Kenya. Kenya Literature Bureau, Nairobi, pp. 32–32
Orme, A. R. (1996). Coastal Environments. In Adams, W. M., Goudie, A. S., and Orme, A. R. (eds.), The Physical Geography of Africa. Oxford University Press, Oxford, pp. 238–266.
Orton, C., Tyers, P., and Vince, A. (1993). Pottery in Archaeology. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.
Osei, W. Y., and Aryeetey-Attoh, S. (1997). The physical environment. In Aryeetey-Attoh, S. (ed.), Geography of Sub-Saharan Africa. Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ, pp. 1–34.
Pearson, M. N. (1998). Port Cities and Intruders: The Swahili Coast, India, Portugal in the Early Modern Era. John Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, MD.
Phillipson, D. W. (1993). African Archaeology. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Phillipson, D. W. (2002). Language and farming dispersals in Sub-Saharan Africa, with particular reference to the Bantu-speaking peoples. In Bellwood, P., and Renfrew, C. (eds.), Examining the farming/language dispersal hypothesis. University of Cambridge Press, Cambridge, UK, pp. 177–187.
Posnansky, M. (1961). Pottery types from archaeological sites in East Africa. Journal of African History 2: 177–198.
Prentice, I. C., and Jolly, D. (2000). Mid-Holocene and glacial-maximum vegetation geography of the northern continents and Africa. Journal of Biogeography 27: 507–519.
Radcliffe-Brown, A. R. (1950). Introduction. In Radcliffe-Brown, A. R., and Forde, D. (eds.), African Systems of Kinship and Marriage. Oxford University Press, London, pp. 1–85.
Reid, A. (1990). Ntusi and its hinterland: Further investigations of the Later Iron Age and pastoral ecology in southern Uganda. Nyame Akuma 33: 26–28.
Rice, P. M. (1987). Pottery Analysis: A Sourcebook. University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
Risso, P. (1995). Merchants and Faith: Muslim Commerce and Culture in the Indian Ocean. Westview Press, Boulder, CO.
Robertshaw, P. T. (1991a). Gogo Falls: A complex site east of Lake Victoria. Azania 26.
Robertshaw, P. T. (1991b). Recent Archaeological Surveys in Western Uganda. Nyame Akuma 36: 40–46.
Robertshaw, P. T. (1997). Munsa Earthworks: A Preliminary Reprt on Recent Excavations. Azania 32: 1–20.
Roscoe, J. (1966). The Northern Bantu: An Account of Some Central African Tribes of the Uganda Protectorate. Frank Cass and Co. Ltd., London.
Saenz, C. (1991). Lords of the waste: Predation, pastoral production, and the process of stratification among the Eastern Twaregs. In Earle, T. K. (ed.), Chiefdoms: Power, Economy, and Ideology. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 100–118.
Salas, A., Richards, M. B., De la Fe, T., Lareu, M.-V., Sobrino, B., Sánchez-Diz, P., Macaulay, V. A., and Carracedo, Á. (2002). The making of the African mtDNA landscape. American Journal of Human Genetics 71: 1082–1111.
Schlippe, P. D. (1956). Shifting Cultivation in Africa. Routledge& Kegan Paul, London.
Schmidt, P. R. (1996). Cultural representations of African iron production. In Schmidt, P. R. (ed.), The Culture and Technology of Iron Production. University of Florida Press, Gainesville, pp. 1–28.
Schmidt, P. R. (1997). Archaeological views on a history of landscape change in East Africa. Journal of African History 38: 393–421.
Schmidt, P. R., and Avery, D. H. (1996). Complex iron smelting and prehistoric culture in Tanzania. In Schmidt, P. R. (ed.), The Culture and Technology of African Iron Production. University of Florida Press, Gainesville, pp. 172–185.
Schmidt, P. R., and Childs, S. T. (1985). Innovation and industry during the Early Iron Age in East Africa: The KM2 and KM3 sites of northwest Tanzania. African Archaeological Review 3: 53–94.
Sellnow, I. (1981). Ways of state formation in Africa: A demonstration of typical possibilities. In Claessen, H. J. M., and Skalnik, P. (eds.), The Study of the State. Mouton Publishers, The Hague, pp. 303–316.
Selvakumar, V. (2002). Hunter-gatherer adaptations in Maurai Region, Tamil Nadu, India: From c. 10,000 B.P. to c. A.D. 500. Asian Perspectives 41: 71–102.
Semazzi, F. H. M., and Indeje, M. (1999). Inter-seasonal variability of the ENSO rainfall signal of East Africa. Journal of the African Meteorological Society 4: 81–94.
Siiriäinen, A. (1984). Excavations in Laikipia: An Archaeological Study of the Recent Prehistory in the Eastern Highlands of Kenya. Suomen Muinaismuistoyhdistyksen Aikakauskirja Finska Fornminnesföreningens Tidskrift, 86, Helsinki.
Sinclair, P. J. J., Pikirayi, I., Pwiti, G., and Soper, R. (1993). Urban trajectories on the Zimbabwean Plateau. In Shaw, T., Sinclair, P., Andah, B., and Okpoko, A. (eds.), The Archaeology of Africa: Food, Metals, and Towns. Routledge, London, pp. 704–731.
Soper, R. C. (1967a). Iron Age sites in north-eastern Tanzania. Azania 2: 19–36.
Soper, R. C. (1967b). Kwale: An early Iron Age site in south-eastern Kenya. Azania 2: 1–16.
Soper, R. C. (1989). History of pottery in Kenya. In Barbour, J., and Wandibba, S. (eds.), Kenyan Pots and Potters. Oxford University Press, Nairobi, pp. 6–26.
Spear, T. (1981). Kenya's Past: An Introduction to Historical Method in Africa. Longman, Burnt Mill, UK.
Stanley, H. M. (1890). In Darkest Africa. Charles Scribner's Sons, New York.
Stenning, D. J. (1959). Savanna Nomads: A Study of the Wodaabe Pastoral Fulani of Western Bornu Province, Northern Region, Nigeria. Oxford University Press, London.
Steward, J. H. (1955). Theory of Culture Change. University of Illinois Press, Urbana.
Stewart, K. A. (1993). Iron Age ceramic studies in the Great Lakes of Eastern Africa. African Archaeological Review 11: 21–37.
Sun, L. Q., Semazzi, F. H. M., Giorgi, F., and Ogallo, L. J. (1999a). Application of the NCAR regional climate model to eastern Africa-1. Simulation of short rains of 1988. Journal of Geophysical Research 104: 6529–6548.
Sun, L. Q., Semazzi, F. H. M., Giorgi, F., and Ogallo, L. J. (1999b). Application of the NCAR regional climate model to eastern Africa-2. Simulation of interannual variability of short rains. Journal of Geophysical Research-Atmospheres 104: 6549–6562.
Suplee, C. (1999). El Niño/La Niña: Nature's vicous cycle. National Geographic 195: 73–95.
Sutton, J. E. G. (1965). Sirikwa holes, stone houses and their makers in the Western Highlands of Kenya. Man 101: 113–115.
Sutton, J. E. G. (1973). The Archaeology of the Western Highlands of Kenya. Memoir 3 of the British Institute in Eastern Africa. BIEA, Nairobi.
Sutton, J. E. G. (1987). Hyrax Hill and the Sirikwa: New excavations on site II. Azania 22: 1–36.
Sutton, J. E. G. (1998). Hyrax Hill and the later archaeology of the Central Rift Valley of Kenya. Azania 33: 73–112.
Taylor, D., Robertshaw, P., and Marchant, R. A. (2000). Environmental change and political–economic upheaval in precolonial western Uganda. Holocene 10: 527–536.
Thompson, J. (1968 [1885]). Through Masai Land: A Journey of Exploration Among the Snowclad Mountains and Strange Tribes of Eastern Equatorial Africa. Frank Cass and Co. Ltd., London.
Thorbahn, P. F. (1979). The Precolonial Ivory Trade of East Africa: Reconstruction of a Human-Elephant Ecosystem. PhD Thesis, University of Massachusetts, Amherst.
Thorp, C. (1992). Archaeology in the Nguru Hills: Iron Age and earlier ceramics. Azania 27: 21–44.
Trigger, B. (1993). Early Civilization: Ancient Egypt in Context. American University in Cairo Press, Cairo.
Van Noten, F. (1979). The early Iron Age in the interlacustrine region: The diffusion of iron technology. Azania 14: 61–80.
Wadley, L. (1996). Changes in the social relations of precolonial hunter-gatherers after agro-pastoralist contact: An example from Magaliesberg, South Africa. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 15: 205–217.
Walz, J. (2003). Beyond the Coast and Beneath the Mountains: An Archaeology of Spatial and Temporal Connectivity in Eastern Africa. Paper presented at 45th Annual African Studies Association Conference, Boston, MA.
Wandibba, S. (1980). The application of attribute analysis to the study of Later Stone Age/Neolithic pottery ceramics in Kenya. In Leakey, R. E., and Ogot, B. A. (eds.), Proceedings of the 8th Panafrican Congress of Prehistory and Quaternary Studies Nairobi September 1977. The International Louis Leakey Memorial Institute for African Prehistory, Nairobi, pp. 283–285.
Wandibba, S. (1990). Ancient and modern ceramic traditions in the Lake Victoria Basin of Kenya. Azania 25: 67–78.
Wilding, R. F. (1980). The Shorefolk. Fort Jesus Museum, Mombasa.
Willis, J. (1993). Mombasa, the Swahili, and the Making of the Mijikenda. Claredon Press, Oxford.
Wilson, T., and Lali Omar, A. (1997). Archaeological investigations at Pate. Azania 32: 31–76.
Wright, D. K. (2003a). Archaeological investigations of three Pastoral neolithic sites in Tsavo National Park, Kenya. Azania 38: 183–188.
Wright, D. K. (2003b). Survey, excavation and preliminary analysis of pastoral neolithic sites, Kenya. Nyame Akuma 59: 54–61.
Wright, D. K. (2005). Environment, Chronology and Resource Exploitation of the Pastoral Neolithic in Tsavo, Kenya, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Wright, D.K. New Perspectives on Early Regional Interaction Networks of East African Trade: A View from Tsavo National Park, Kenya. Afr Archaeol Rev 22, 111–140 (2005). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10437-005-8041-7
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10437-005-8041-7