Skip to main content
Log in

Sit-and-wait for large prey: foraging strategy and prey choice of White-tailed Eagles

  • Original Article
  • Published:
Journal of Ornithology Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Little is known about foraging strategy and prey choice in large raptor species and how they might change with age and season. Here, we present results about time allocation, foraging pattern and diet selection of adult territorial White-tailed Eagles Haliaeetus albicilla from northeastern Germany. To assess age-related differences, we also observed foraging behaviour in roaming juveniles. Eagles allocated most of their diurnal time to perching. Since perch-hunting was more efficient than flight-hunting, “sit-and-wait” for prey seems to be a low-cost, highly profitable foraging mode in eagles. A linear mixed model revealed that season significantly affected eagle foraging patterns. Success in prey capture decreased and duration of foraging flights increased considerably in winter. Eagle strike success varied significantly between different territories and increased with increasing habitat quality. Adults foraged more efficiently than juveniles, presumably because of their superior spatial knowledge and hunting skills. A use–availability design for prey selectivity indices judged by log-likelihood chi-square statistics indicated that eagles make choices, within both their primary prey fish and alternative prey waterfowl, consistent with predictions of optimality models. When prey was abundant, eagles preferred large over small fish and slow over agile waterfowl species. Thus, prey choice by eagles reflected a complex function of absolute availability, size and anti-predator behaviour of their prey. Our study demonstrates that large raptors such as White-tailed Eagles are generally energy maximisers and pursue a “sit-and-wait” hunting mode to capture profitable prey, and can modify their foraging strategy to cope with variations in weather conditions and food availability.

Zusammenfassung

Sitzen-und-Warten auf große Beute: Nahrungssuchstrategie und Beutewahl des Seeadlers Über die Nahrungssuchstrategie und Beutewahl großer Greifvogelarten und wie diese sich mit dem Alter und der Jahreszeit verändern können, ist bisher wenig bekannt. Hier stellen wir Ergebnisse über die Zeitbudgets, Nahrungssuchmuster und Nahrungswahl adulter territorialer Seeadler Haliaeetus albicilla aus Norddeutschland vor. Um altersbedingte Unterschiede zu erfassen, untersuchten wir auch das Nahrungssuchverhalten von umherstreifenden Juvenilen. Seeadler wendeten ihre meiste Tageszeit für die Ansitzjagd auf. Da diese passive Nahrungssuche effizienter war als aktive Suchflüge, scheint „Sitzen-und-Warten“ auf Beute eine mit geringen Kosten und hohem Nutzen verbundene Jagdmethode bei Seeadlern zu sein. Ein lineares gemischtes Modell ergab, dass die Jahreszeit die Nahrungssuchmuster von Seeadlern signifikant beeinflusste. Der Erfolg beim Beutefang sank und die Dauer der Nahrungssuchflüge stieg beträchtlich im Winter. Der Beutefangerfolg der Seeadler variierte signifikant zwischen verschiedenen Territorien und nahm mit steigender Habitatqualität zu. Adulte waren bei der Nahrungssuche effizienter als Juvenile, vermutlich aufgrund ihrer besseren Raumkenntnis und Jagdfähigkeiten. Ein Nutzung-Verfügbarkeitsdesign für Nahrungswahlindizes, die mit log-likelihood Chi-Quadrat-Anpassungstests geprüft wurden, wies darauf hin, dass Seeadler selektieren, sowohl innerhalb ihrer Hauptbeute Fische als auch ihrer alternativen Beute Wasservögel, übereinstimmend mit Vorhersagen des Modells zur optimalen Nahrungswahl. Wenn ein reichliches Angebot an Beutetieren vorhanden war, präferierten die Seeadler große vor kleinen Fischen und langsame vor agilen Wasservogelarten. Demnach reflektierte die Beutewahl bei Seeadlern eine komplexe Funktion von der absoluten Verfügbarkeit, Größe und dem Feindabwehrverhalten ihrer Beutetiere. Unsere Studie demonstriert, dass große Greifvögel wie Seeadler generell Energiemaximierer sind und zum Fang von profitabler Beute eine „Sitzen-und-Warten“ Jagdmethode verfolgen, sie ihre Nahrungssuchstrategie jedoch modifizieren können, um sich an veränderte Wetterbedingungen und eingeschränkte Nahrungsverfügbarkeiten anzupassen.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Bakaloudis DE (2010) Hunting strategies and foraging performance of the short-toed eagle in the Dadia-Lefkimi-Soufli National Park, north-east Greece. J Zool 281:168–174

    Google Scholar 

  • Barnard CJ, Brown CAJ (1981) Prey size selection and competition in the common shrew (Sorex araneus L.). Behav Ecol Sociobiol 8:239–243

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bauch G (1966) Die einheimischen Süsswasserfische, 5th edn. Neumann, Radebeul

    Google Scholar 

  • Beauchamp G (2003) Group-size effects on vigilance: a search for mechanisms. Behav Process 63:111–121

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bothma JP, Coertze RJ (2004) Motherhood increases hunting success in southern Kalahari leopards. J Mammal 85:756–760

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • DeVault TL, Rhodes OE, Shivik JA (2003) Scavenging by vertebrates: behavioral, ecological, and evolutionary perspectives on an important energy transfer pathway in terrestrial ecosystems. Oikos 102:224–234

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Edwards TC (1989) The ontogeny of diet selection in fledgling ospreys. Ecology 70:881–896

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Edwards GP (1997) Predicting seasonal diet in the yellow-bellied marmot: success and failure for the linear programming model. Oecologia 112:320–330

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fahmy E-G (1982) Untersuchungen zur Bestandscharakteristik und Populationsdynamik des Bleis (Abramis brama L.) sowie seiner Einordnung in das Trophiegefüge der Darß-Zingster-Boddenkette. Dissertation, University of Rostock

  • Ferrer M (1993) Reduction in hunting success and settlement strategies in young Spanish imperial eagles. Anim Behav 45:406–408

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fischer W (1982) Die Seeadler. Ziemsen, Wittenberg Lutherstadt

    Google Scholar 

  • Frederiksen M, Lebreton J-D, Bregnballe T (2001) The interplay between culling and density-dependence in the great cormorant: a modelling approach. J Appl Ecol 38:617–627

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gamauf A, Preleuthner M, Winkler H (1998) Philippine birds of prey: interrelations among habitat, morphology and behavior. Auk 75:713–726

    Google Scholar 

  • Gil JM, Pleguezuelos JM (2001) Prey and prey-size selection by the short-toed eagle (Circaetus gallicus) during the breeding season in Granada (south-eastern Spain). J Zool 255:131–137

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Goss-Custard JD (1977) Optimal foraging and the size selection of worms by redshank, Tringa totanus, in the field. Anim Behav 25:10–29

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hauff P (2003) Sea-eagles in Germany and their population growth in the 20th century. In: Helander B, Marquiss M, Bowerman B (eds) Sea eagle 2000. Swedish Society for Nature Conservation/SNF, Stockholm, pp 71–77

  • Hayward MW, Kerley GIH (2005) Prey preferences of the lion (Panthera leo). J Zool 267:309–322

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Helander B (1983) Reproduction of the white-tailed sea eagle Haliaeetus albicilla (L.) in Sweden, in relation to food and residue levels of organochlorine and mercury compounds in the eggs. Dissertation, University of Stockholm

  • Hixon MA, Carpenter FL (1988) Distinguishing energy maximizers from time minimizers: a comparative study of two hummingbird species. Integr Comp Biol 28:913–925

    Google Scholar 

  • Huey RB, Pianka ER (1981) Ecological consequences of foraging mode. Ecology 62:991–999

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hunt WG, Burnham W, Parish CN, Burnham B, Mutch B, Oaks JL (2006) Bullet fragments in deer remains: implications for lead exposure in scavengers. Wildlife Soc Bull 34:167–170

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ichii T, Bengtson JL, Boveng PL, Takao Y, Jansen JK, Hiruki-Raring LM, Cameron MF, Okamura H, Hayashi T, Naganobu M (2007) Provisioning strategies of Antarctic fur seals and chinstrap penguins produce different responses to distribution of common prey and habitat. Mar Ecol Prog Ser 344:277–297

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ioannou CC, Krause J (2008) Searching for prey: the effects of group size and number. Anim Behav 75:1383–1388

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jackson AC, Rundle SD, Attrill MJ, Cotton PA (2004) Ontogenetic changes in metabolism may determine diet shifts for a sit-and-wait predator. J Anim Ecol 73:536–545

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jaksić FM, Carothers JH (1985) Ecological, morphological, and bioenergetic correlates of hunting mode in hawks and owls. Ornis Scand 16:165–172

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jenkins AR (2000) Hunting mode and success of African peregrines Falco peregrinus minor: does nesting habitat quality affect foraging efficiency? Ibis 142:235–246

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Karanth KN, Sunquist ME (1995) Prey selection by tiger, leopard and dhole in tropical forests. J Anim Ecol 64:439–450

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Krebs JR (1978) Optimal foraging: decision rules for predators. In: Krebs JR, Davies NB (eds) Behavioral ecology: an evolutionary approach. Blackwell, Oxford, pp 23–63

    Google Scholar 

  • Krone O, Kenntner N, Tataruch F (2009a) Gefährdungsursachen des Seeadlers (Haliaeetus albicilla L. 1758). Denisia 27:139–146

    Google Scholar 

  • Krone O, Berger A, Schulte R (2009b) Recording movement and activity pattern of a white-tailed sea eagle (Haliaeetus albicilla) by a GPS datalogger. J Ornithol 150:273–280

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Krone O, Nadjafzadeh M, Berger A (2013) White-tailed sea eagles (Haliaeetus albicilla) defend small home ranges in north-east Germany throughout the year. J Ornithol 154:827–835

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lemon WC (1991) Fitness consequences of foraging behaviour in the zebra finch. Nature 352:153–155

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lescroël A, Ballard G, Toniolo V, Barton KJ, Wilson PR, Lyver POB, Ainley DG (2010) Working less to gain more: when breeding quality relates to foraging efficiency. Ecology 91:2044–2055

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lundberg P (1985) Time-budgeting by starlings Sturnus vulgaris: time minimising, energy maximising and the annual cycle organization. J Anim Ecol 67:331–337

    Google Scholar 

  • Madders M, Marquiss M (2003) A comparison of the diet of white-tailed eagles and golden eagles breeding in adjacent ranges in west Scotland. In: Helander B, Marquiss M, Bowerman B (eds) Sea eagle 2000. Swedish Society for Nature Conservation/SNF, Stockholm, pp 289–296

    Google Scholar 

  • Manly BFJ, McDonald LL, Thomas DL, McDonald TL (2002) Resource selection by animals, 2nd edn. Kluwer, Dordrecht

    Google Scholar 

  • Martin P, Bateson P (1993) Measuring behaviour, 2nd edn. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Masman D, Daan S, Dijkstra C (1988) Time allocation in the kestrel (Falco tinnunculus), and the principle of energy minimization. J Anim Ecol 57:411–432

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mikheev VN, Wanzenböck J (1999) Satiation-dependent, intra-cohort variations in prey size selection of young roach (Rutilus rutilus). Oecologia 121:499–505

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nadjafzadeh M (2011) Feeding ecology of and lead exposure in a top predator: the white-tailed eagle. Dissertation, Freie Universität Berlin

  • Nadjafzadeh M, Hofer H, Krone O (2013) The link between feeding ecology and lead poisoning in white-tailed eagles. J Wildl Manag 77:48–57

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Naef-Daenzer L, Naef-Daenzer B, Nager RG (2000) Prey selection and foraging performance of breeding great tits Parus major in relation to food availability. J Avian Biol 31:206–214

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Neubauer W (2001) Die Vögel des Naturschutzgebietes Krakower Obersee. Oemke, Gützkow

    Google Scholar 

  • Nygård T, Kenward RE, Einvik K (2003) Dispersal in juvenile white-tailed sea eagles in Norway shown by radio-telemetry. In: Helander B, Marquiss M, Bowerman B (eds) Sea eagle 2000. Swedish Society for Nature Conservation/SNF, Stockholm, pp 191–196

    Google Scholar 

  • Oehme G (1975) Ernährungsökologie des Seeadlers, Haliaeetus albicilla (L.), unter besonderer Berücksichtigung der Population in den drei Nordbezirken der Deutschen Demokratischen Republik. Dissertation, University of Greifswald

  • Oksanen L, Lundberg P (1995) Optimization of reproductive effort and foraging time in mammals: the influence of resource level and predation risk. Evol Ecol 9:45–56

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Perry G (1999) The evolution of search modes: ecological versus phylogenetic perspectives. Am Nat 153:98–109

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pyke GH, Pulliam HR, Charnov EL (1977) Optimal foraging: a selective review of theory and tests. Q Rev Biol 52:137–154

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rudebeck G (1950) The choice of prey and modes of hunting of predatory birds with special reference to their selective effect. Oikos 2:65–88

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rutz C, Wittingham MJ, Newton I (2006) Age-dependent diet choice in an avian top predator. Proc R Soc Lond B 273:579–586

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schoener TW (1971) Theory of feeding strategies. Annu Rev Ecol Syst 2:369–404

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Scholz F (2010) Spatial use and habitat selection of white-tailed eagles (Haliaeetus albicilla) in Germany. Dissertation, Freie Universität Berlin

  • Shepard ELC, Wilson RP, Quintana F, Laich AG, Forman DW (2009) Pushed for time or saving on fuel: fine-scale energy budgets shed light on currencies in a diving bird. Proc R Soc Lond B 276:3149–3155

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sinclair ARE, Krebs CJ (2002) Complex numerical responses to top-down and bottom-up processes in vertebrate populations. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B 357:1221–1231

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Stephens DW, Krebs JR (1986) Foraging theory. Princeton University Press, Princeton

    Google Scholar 

  • Struwe-Juhl B (2003) Why do white-tailed eagles prefer coots? In: Helander B, Marquiss M, Bowerman B (eds) Sea eagle 2000. Swedish Society for Nature Conservation/SNF, Stockholm, pp 317–326

    Google Scholar 

  • Sulawa J, Robert A, Köppen U, Hauff P, Krone O (2010) Recovery dynamics and viability of the white-tailed eagle (Haliaeetus albicilla) in Germany. Biodivers Conserv 19:97–112

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sulkava S, Tornberg R, Koivusaari J (1997) Diet of the white-tailed eagle Haliaeetus albicilla in Finland. Ornis Fennica 74:65–78

    Google Scholar 

  • Svensson L, Grant PJ, Mullarney K, Zetterström D (1999) Der neue Kosmos-Vogelführer. Alle Arten Europas, Nordafrikas und Vorderasiens. Franckh-Kosmos, Stuttgart

  • Tarkan AS, Gürsoy Gaygusuz Ç, Gaygusuz Ö, Acipinar H (2007) Use of bone and otolith measures for size-estimation of fish in predator-prey studies. Folia Zool 56:328–336

    Google Scholar 

  • Teerink BJ (1991) Hair of West European mammals. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge

    Google Scholar 

  • Thiollay JM (1994) Family Accipitridae (hawks and eagles). In: del Hoyo J, Elliot A, Sargatal J (eds) Handbook of the birds of the world: New World vultures to guineafowl, vol 2. Lynx, Barcelona, pp 52–205

    Google Scholar 

  • Thomas DL, Taylor EJ (1990) Study designs and tests for comparing resource use and availability. J Wildl Manag 54:322–330

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • van Gils JA, Dekinga A, Spaans B, Vahl WK, Piersma T (2005) Digestive bottleneck affects foraging decisions in red knots Calidris canutus. II. Patch choice and length of working day. J Anim Ecol 74:120–130

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Watson J (2011) The golden eagle, 2nd edn. Poyser, London

    Google Scholar 

  • Watson JW, Garrett MG, Anthony RG (1991) Foraging ecology of bald eagles in the Columbia River estuary. J Wildl Manag 55:492–499

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Whitfield DP, Duffy K, McLeod DRA, Evans RJ, MacLennan AM, Reid R, Sexton D, Wilson JD, Douse A (2009) Juvenile dispersal of white-tailed eagles in western Scotland. J Raptor Res 43:110–112

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wunderle JM (1991) Age-specific foraging proficiency in birds. Curr Ornithol 8:273–324

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

We are grateful to the administration of the nature park Nossentiner/Schwinzer Heide and the Reepsholt-Stiftung for logistic support and accommodation. We thank W. Neubauer for data on waterfowl availability at the Krakower Obersee. We are indebted to several fishermen, forestry districts, hunters and landowners in the study area for collaboration and support, and to F. Scholz, J. Sulawa, A. Trinogga, and N. Kenntner for assistance and support. We thank the editors and anonymous reviewers for very helpful comments on a previous version of the manuscript. This study was funded by the Federal Ministry of Education and Research (BMBF, reference no. 0330720) and the Leibniz Institute for Zoo and Wildlife Research Berlin.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Mirjam Nadjafzadeh.

Additional information

Communicated by F. Bairlein.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Nadjafzadeh, M., Hofer, H. & Krone, O. Sit-and-wait for large prey: foraging strategy and prey choice of White-tailed Eagles. J Ornithol 157, 165–178 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10336-015-1264-8

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Revised:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10336-015-1264-8

Keywords

Navigation