Abstract
Allelochemicals play an important role in explaining plant growth inhibition in interspecies interactions and in structuring the plant community. Five aspects of allelochemicals are discussed from an ecophysiological perspective: (i) biosynthesis, (ii) mode of release, (iii) mode of action, (iv) detoxification and prevention of autotoxicity, and (v) joint action of allelochemicals. A discussion on identifying a compound as an allelochemical is also presented.
Similar content being viewed by others
Abbreviations
- DIBOA:
-
2,4-dihydroxy-2H-1,4-benzoxazin-3(4H)-one
- DIMBOA:
-
2,4-dihydroxy-7-methoxy-2H-1,4-benzoxazin-3(4H)-one
- HPPD:
-
hydroxyphenylpyruvate dioxygenase
- PSII:
-
photosystem II
References
Alsaadawi IS, Al-Uqaili JK, Alrubeaa AJ, Al-Hadithy SM (1986) Allelopathic suppression of weeds and nitrification with selected cultivars of Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench. J Chem Ecol 12:209–220
Balke NE, Davis MP, Lee CC (1987) Conjugation of allelochemicals by plants: enzymatic glucosylation of salicylic acid by Avena sativa. In: Waller GR (ed) Allelochemicals: role in agriculture and forestry. American Chemical Society, Washington DC, pp 214–227
Battey NH, Blackbourn HD (1993) The control of exocytosis in plant cells. New Phytol 125:307–338
Baziramakenga R, Leroux GD, Simard RR, Nadeau P (1997) Allelopathic effects of phenolic acids on nucleic acid and protein levels in soybean seedlings. Can J Bot 75:445–450
Berenbaum MR (1995) Turnabout is fair play: secondary roles for primary compounds. J Chem Ecol 21:925–940
Bernays EA, Woodhead S (1982) Plant phenols utilized as nutrients by a phytophagus insect. Science 216:201–203
Bhowmik PC, Inderjit (2003) Challenges and opportunities in implementing allelopathy for natural weed management. Crop Prot 22:661–671
Blum U (1995) The value of model plant–microbe–soil systems for understanding processes associated with allelopathic interactions: one example. In: Inderjit, Dakshini KMM, Einhellig FA (eds) Allelopathy: organisms, processes and applications. American Chemical Society, Washington DC, pp 127-131
Blum U (1996) Allelopathic interactions involving phenolic acids. J Nematol 28:259–267
Blum U (1999) Designing laboratory plant debris–soil bioassays: some reflections. In: Inderjit, Dakshini KMM, Foy CL (eds) Principles and practices in plant ecology: allelochemical interactions. CRC, Boca Raton, pp 17–23
Blum U, Dalton BR, Shann JR (1985) The effects of ferulic and p-coumaric acids in nutrient culture on cucumber leaf expansion as influenced by pH. J Chem Ecol 11:1567–1582
Blum U, Gerig TM, Worsham AD, King LD (1993) Modification of allelopathic effects of p-coumaric acid on morning-glory seedling biomass by glucose, methionine, and nitrate. J Chem Ecol 19:2791–2811
Blum U, Shafer SR, Lehman ME (1999) Evidence for inhibitory allelopathic interactions involving phenolic acids in field soils: concepts vs. experimental model. Crit Rev Plant Sci 18:673–693
Booker FL, Blum U, Fiscus EL (1992) Short-term effects of ferulic acid on ion uptake and water relations in cucumber seedlings. J Exp Bot 43:649–655
Busk PK, Møller BL (2002) Dhurrin synthesis in sorghum is regulated at the transcriptional level and induced by nitrogen fertilization in older plants. Plant Physiol 129:1222–1231
Camacho-Cristóbal JJ, Anzellotti D, González-Fontes A (2002) Changes in phenolic metabolism of tobacco plants during short-term boron deficiency. Plant Biol Biochem 40:997–1002
Cole JD (1994) Detoxification and activation of agrochemicals in plants. Pestic Sci 42:209–222
Czarnota MA, Paul RN, Dayan FE, Nimbal CI, Weston LA (2001) Mode of action, localization of production, chemical nature, and activity of sorgoleone: a potent PS II inhibitor in Sorghum spp. root exudates. Weed Technol 15:813–825
Dalton BR (1999) The occurrence and behavior of plant phenolic acids in soil environment and their potential involvement in allelochemical interference interactions: methodological limitations in establishing conclusive proof of allelopathy. In: Inderjit, Dakshini KMM, Foy CL (eds) Principles and practices in plant ecology: allelochemical interactions. CRC, Boca Raton, pp 57–74
Dillon RJ, Vennard CT, Charnley AK (2000) Pheromones — exploitation of gut bacteria in the locust. Nature 403:851
Duke SO, Paul RN (1993) Development and fine structure of the glandular trichomes of Artemisia annua L. Int J Plant Sci 154:107–118
Duke SO, Williams RD, Markhart AH (1983) Interaction of moisture stress and three phenolic compounds on lettuce seed germination. Ann Bot 52:923–926
Duke SO, Vaughn KC, Croom EM, Elsohly HN (1987) Artemisinin, a constituent of annual wormwood (Artemisia annua), is a selective phytotoxin. Weed Sci 35:499–505
Duke MV, Paul RN, ElSohly HN, Sturtz G, Duke SO (1994) Localization of artemisinin and artemisitene in foliar tissues of glanded and glandless biotypes of Artemisia annua. Int J Plant Sci 155:365–373
Duke SO, Canel C, Rimando AM, Tellez MR, Duke MV, Paul RN (2000) Current and potential exploitation of plant glandular trichome productivity. Adv Bot Res 31:121–151
Einhellig FA (1989) Interactive effects of allelochemicals and environmental stress. In: Chou CH, Waller GR (eds) Phytochemical ecology: allelochemicals, mycotoxins, and insect pheromones and allomones. Academia Sinica Monograph Series No. 9, Taipei, ROC, pp 101–116
Einhellig FA (1995) Allelopathy: current status and future goals. In: Inderjit, Dakshini KMM, Einhellig FA (eds) Allelopathy: organisms, processes and applications. American Chemical Society, Washington DC, pp 1–24
Einhellig FA, Rasmussen JA (1979) Effects of three phenolic acids on chlorophyll content and growth of soybean and grain sorghum seedlings. J Chem Ecol 5:815–823
Einhellig FA, Souza IF (1992) Phytotoxicity of sorgoleone found in grain sorghum root exudates. J Chem Ecol 18:1–11
Einhellig FA, Rice EL, Risser PG, Wender SH (1970) Effects of scopoletin on growth, CO2 exchange rates, and concentration of scopoletin, scopolin, and chlorogenic acid in tobacco, sunflower and pigweed. Bull Torrey Bot Club 97:22–23
Einhellig FA, Rasmussen JA, Hejl AH, Souza IF (1993) Effects of root exudate sorgoleone on photosynthesis. J Chem Ecol 19:369–375
Facchini PJ, Chappell J (1992) Gene family for an elicitor-induced sesquiterpene cyclase in tobacco. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 89:11088–11092
Friebe A (2001) Role of benzoxaninones in cereals. J Crop Prod 4:479–400
Galindo JCG, Hernandez A, Dayan FE, Macias FA, Duke SO (1999) Dehydrozaluzanin C, a natural sesquiterpenolide, causes rapid plasma membrane leakage. Phytochemistry 52:805–813
Gerig TM, Blum U (1991) Effects of mixtures of four phenolic acids on leaf area expansion of cucumber seedlings grown in portsmouth B1 soil materials. J Chem Ecol 17:29–39
Gierl A, Frey M (2001) Evolution of benzoxazinone biosynthesis and indole production in maize. Planta 213:493–498
Gonzalez VM, Kazimir J, Nimbal C, Weston LA, Cheniae GM (1997) Inhibition of a photosystem II electron transfer reaction by the natural product sorgoleone. J Agric Food Chem 45:1415–1421
Gross EM (1999) Allelopathy in benthis and littoral areas: case studies on allelochemicals from benthic cyanobacteria and submerged macrophytes. In: Inderjit, Dakshini KMM, Foy CL (eds) Principles and practices in plant ecology: allelochemical interactions. CRC, Boca Raton, pp 179–199
Hejl AM, Einhellig FA, Rasmussen JA (1993) Effects of juglone on growth, photosynthesis, and respiration. J Chem Ecol 19:559–568
Hoffland E, Van den Boogard R, Nelemans J, Findenegg G (1992) Biosynthesis and root exudation of citric and malic acids in phosphate-starved rape plants. New Phytol 122:675–680
Inderjit (1996) Plant phenolics in allelopathy. Bot Rev 62:182–202
Inderjit (2001) Soils: environmental effect on allelochemical activity. Agron J 93:79–84
Inderjit, Bhowmik PC (2002) Allelochemicals phytotoxicity in explaining weed invasiveness and their function as herbicide analogues. In: Inderjit, Mallik AU (eds) Chemical ecology of plants: allelopathy in aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems. Birkhäuser, Basal, pp 187–197
Inderjit, Dakshini KMM (1992) Interference potential of Pluchea lanceolata (Asteraceae): growth and physiological responses of asparagus bean, Vigna unguiculata var. sesquipedalis. Am J Bot 79:977–981
Inderjit, Keating KI (1999) Allelopathy: principles, procedures, processes, and promises for biological control. Adv Agron 67:141–231
Inderjit, Mallik AU (2002) Chemical ecology of plants: allelopathy in aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems. Birkhäuser, Basal
Inderjit, Nilsen ET (2003) Bioassays and field studies for allelopathy in terrestrial plants: progress and problems. Crit Rev Plant Sci 22:221–238
Inderjit, Weiner J (2001) Plant allelochemical interference or soil chemical ecology? Persp Plant Ecol Evol Syst 4:3–12
Inderjit, Weston LA (2003) Root exudates: an overview. In: de Kroon H, Visser EJW (eds) Root ecology. Springer, Berlin Heidelberg New York, pp 235–255
Inderjit, Dakshini KMM, Einhellig FA (1995) Allelopathy: organisms, processes, and applications. American Chemical Society, Washington DC
Inderjit, Muramatsu M, Nishimura H (1997) On allelopathic potential of terpenoids, phenolics and their mixture, and their recovery in soil. Can J Bot 75:888–891
Inderjit, Dakshini KMM, Foy CL (1999a) Principles and practices in plant ecology: allelochemical interactions. CRC, Boca Raton
Inderjit, Cheng HH, Nishimura H (1999b) Plant phenolics and terpenoids: transformation, degradation, and potential for allelopathic interactions. In: Inderjit, Dakshini KMM, Foy CL (eds) Principles and practices in plant ecology: allelochemical interactions. CRC, Boca Raton, pp 255–266
Inderjit, Streibig J, Olofsdotter M (2002) Joint action of phenolic acid mixtures and its significance in allelopathy research. Physiol Plant 114:422–428
Kato-Noguchi H, Mizutani J, Hasegawa K (1994) Allelopathy of oats. II. Allelochemical effect of l-tryptophan and its concentration in oat root exudates. J Chem Ecol 20:315–319
Kaur H, Inderjit, Keating KI (2002) Do allelochemicals operate independent of substratum factors? In: Inderjit, Mallik AU (eds) Chemical ecology of plants: allelopathy in aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems. Birkhäuser, Basal, pp 99–107
Kellogg EA (2001) Root hairs, trichomes and the evolution of genes. Trends Plant Sci 6:550–552
Lambers H, Chapin FS III, Pons TL (1998) Plant physiological ecology. Springer, Berlin Heidelberg New York
Leu E, Krieger-Liszkay A, Goussias C, Gross EM (2002) Polyphenolic allelochemicals from the aquatic angiosperm Myriophyllum spicatum inhibit photosystem II. Plant Physiol 130:2011–2018
Li HH, Nishimura H, Hasegawa K, Mizutani J (1993) Some physiological effects and the possible mechanism of action of juglone in plants. Weed Res (Japan) 38:214–222
Lichtenthaler HK, Rohmer M, Schwender J (1997) Two independent biochemical pathways for isopentenyl diphosphate and isoprenoid biosynthesis in higher plants. Physiol Plant 101:643–652
Lois AF, West CA (1990) Regulation of expression of the casbene synthetase gene during elicitation of castor bean seedlings with pectic fragments. Arch Biochem Biophys 276:270–277
Lydon J, Duke SO (1988) Glyphosate induction of elevated levels of hydroxybenzoic acids in higher plants. J Agric Food Chem 36:813–818
Lydon J, Duke SO (1993) The role of pesticides on host allelopathy and their effects on allelopathic compounds. In: Altman J (ed) Pesticide interactions in crop production: beneficial and deleterious effects. CRC, Boca Raton, pp 37–56
Lydon J, Teasdale JR, Chen PK (1997) Allelopathic activity of annual wormwood (Artemisia annua) and the role of artemisinin. Weed Sci 45:807–811
Lyu SW, Blum U (1990) Effect of ferulic acid, an allelopathic compound, on net P, K, and water uptake in cucumber seedling in a split-root system. J Chem Ecol 16:2429–2439
Macias FA, Varela RM, Torres A, Molinillo JMG (1999) Potential of cultivar sunflowers (Helianthus annuus L.) as a source of natural herbicide templates. In: Inderjit, Dakshini KMM, Foy CL (eds) Principles and practices in plant ecology: allelochemical interactions. CRC, Boca Raton, pp 531–550
Mahall BE, Callaway RM (1992) Root communication mechanisms and intracommunity distributions of two Mojave desert shrubs. Ecology 73:2145–2151
McConkey ME, Gershenzon J, Croteau RB (2000) Developmental regulation of monoterpene biosynthesis in the glandular trichomes of peppermint. Plant Physiol 122:215–223
Meazza G., Scheffler BE, Tellez MR, Rimando AM, Romagni JG, Duke SO, Nanayakkara D, Khan IA, Abourashed EA, Dayan FE (2002) The inhibitory activity of natural products on plant p-hydroxyphenylpyruvate dioxygenase. Phytochemistry 60:281–288
Molísch H (1937) Der Einfluss einer Pflanze auf die andere-Allelopathie. Fischer, Jena
Muller WH (1965) Volatile materials produced by Salvia leucophylla: effects on seedling growth and soil bacteria. Bot Gaz 126:195–200
Nakano H, Nakajima E, Fujii Y, Yamada K, Shigemori H, Hasegawa K (2003) Leaching of the allelopathic substance, l-tryptophan from the foliage of mesquite (Prosopis juliflora (Sw.) DC.) plants by water spraying. Plant Growth Regul 40:49–52
Netzly DH, Riopel JL, Ejeta G, Butler LG (1988) Germination stimulants of witchweed (Striga asiatica) from hydrophobic root exudate of sorghum (Sorghum bicolor). Weed Sci 36:441–446
Neumann G, Römheld V (1999) Root excretion of carboxylic acids and protons in phosphorus-deficient plants. Plant Soil 211:121–130
Neumann G, Römheld V (2001) The release of root exudates as affected by the plant's physiological status. In: Pinton R, Varanini Z, Nannipieri P (eds) The rhizosphere: biochemistry and organic substances at the soil-plant interface. Dekker, New York, pp 41–93
Niemeyer HM (1988) Hydroxamic acids (4-hydroxy-1,4-benzoxazin-3-ones), defence chemicals in the Gramineae. Phytochemistry 27:267–292
Nimbal CI, Yerkes CN, Weston LA, Weller SC (1996a) Phytotoxicity and distribution of sorgoleone in grain sorghum germplasm. J Agric Food Chem 44:1343–1347
Nimbal CI, Yerkes CN, Weston LA, Weller SC (1996b) Herbicidal activity and site of action of the natural product sorgoleone. Pest Biochem Physiol 54:73–83
Orcutt DM, Nilsen ET (2000) Physiology of plant under stress: soil and biotic factors. Wiley, New York
Pue KJ, Blum U, Gerig TM, Shafer SR (1995) Mechanism by which noninhibitory concentrations of glucose increase inhibitory activity of p-coumaric acid and on morning-glory seedling biomass accumulation. J Chem Ecol 21:833–847
Rasmussen JA, Hejl AM, Einhellig FA, Thomas JA (1992) Sorgoleone from root exudate inhibits mitochondrial functions. J Chem Ecol 18:197–207
Reese JC (1979) Interaction of allelochemicals with nutrients in herbivore food. In: Rosenthal GP, Janzen DH (eds) Herbivores: their interaction with secondary plant metabolites. Academic Press, New York, pp 309–330
Reigosa MJ, Pedrol N (2002) Allelopathy: from molecules to ecosystems. Science Publishers, Enfield, NH
Reigosa MJ, Sanchez-Moreiras A, González L (1999) Ecophysiological approach in allelopathy. Crit Rev Plant Sci 18:577–608
Rice EL (1984) Allelopathy. Academic Press, Orlando, FL
Rimando AM, Dayan FE, Czarnota MA, Weston LA, Duke SO (1998) A new photosystem II electron transport inhibitor from Sorghum bicolor. J Nat Prod 61:927–930
Romagni JG, Allen SN, Dayan FE (2000a) Allelopathic effects of volatile cineoles on two weedy plant species. J Chem Ecol 26:303–313
Romagni JG, Duke SO, Dayan FE (2000b) Inhibition of plant asparagine synthetase by monoterpene cineoles. Plant Physiol 123:725–732
Sakaguchi T, Nishizawa NK, Nakanishi H, Yoshimura E, Mori S (1999) The role of potassium in the secretion of mugineic acids family phytosiderophores from iron-deficient barley roots. Plant Soil 215:221–227
Schiefelbein J (2000) Speciation of root hair cells. In: Ridge RW, Emons AMC (eds) Root hairs: cell and molecular biology. Springer, Berlin Heidelberg New York, pp 197–209
Schulz M, Friebe A (1999) Detoxification of allelochemicals in higher plants and enzymes involved. In: Inderjit, Dakshini KMM, Foy CL (eds) Principles and practices in plant ecology: allelochemical interactions. CRC, Boca Raton, pp 383–400
Schulz M, Schnabl H, Manthe B, Schweihofen B, Casser I (1993) Uptake and detoxification of salicylic acid by Vicia faba and Fagopyrum esculentum. Phytochemistry 33:291–294
Steele CL, Katoh S, Bohlmann J, Croteau R (1998) Regulation of oleoresinosis in grand fir (Abies grandis): differential transcriptional control of monoterpenes, sesquiterpenes, and diterpene synthase genes in response to wounding. Plant Physiol 116:1497–1504
Streibig JC (1992) Quantitative assessment of herbicide phytotoxicity with dilution assay. Department of Agricultural Sciences, Royal Veterinary and Agricultural University, Copenhagen
Streibig JC, Jensen JE (2000) Action of herbicides in mixtures. In: Cobb AH, Kirkwood RC (eds) Herbicides and their mechanism of action. Sheffield Academic Press, Sheffield, pp 153–180
Streibig JC, Kudsk P, Jensen JE (1998) A general joint action model for herbicide mixtures. Pestic Sci 53:21–28
Stiles LH, Leather GR, Chen PK (1994) Effects of two sesquiterpene lactones isolated from Artemisia annua on physiology of Lemna minor. J Chem Ecol 20:969–978
Tellez MR, Canel C, Rimando AM, Duke SO (1999) Differential accumulation of isoprenoids in glanded and glandless Artemisia annua L. Phytochemistry 52:1035–1040
Uren NC (2001) Types, amounts, and possible functions of compounds released into the rhizosphere by soil-grown plants. In: Pinton R, Varanini Z, Nannipieri P (eds) The rhizosphere: biochemistry and organic substances at the soil–plant interface. Dekker, New York, pp 19–40
Vaughan D, Ord BG (1991) Excretion of potential allelochemicals and their effects on root morphology and nutrient contents. In: Atkinson D (ed) Plant root growth: an ecological perspective. Blackwell, Oxford, pp 399–421
von Rad U, Huttl R, Lottspiech F, Gierl A, Frey M (2001) Two glucosyltransferases are involved in detoxification of benzoxazinoids in maize. Plant J 28:633–42
Wardle DA, Nilsson MC, Gallet C, Zackrisson O (1998) An ecosystem level perspective of allelopathy. Biol Rev 73:305–319
Watkinson A (1998) Reply from A.R. Watkinson. Trends Ecol Evol 13:407
Weidenhamer JD, Macias FA, Fischer NH, Williamson GB (1993) Just how insoluble are monoterpenes? J Chem Ecol 19:1799–1807
Werker E (2000) Trichome diversity and development. Adv Bot Res 31:1–35
Weston LA, Duke SO (2003) Weed and crop allelopathy. Crit Rev Plant Sci (in press)
Weston LA, Harmon R, Mueller S (1989) Allelopathic potential of sorghum–sudangrass hybrid (Sudex). J Chem Ecol 15:1855–1865
Weston LA, Nimbal CI, Jeandet P (1999) Allelopathic potential of grain sorghum (Sorghum bicolour [L.] Moench) and related species. In: Inderjit, Dakshini KMM, Foy CL (eds) Principles and practices in plant ecology: allelochemical interactions. CRC, Boca Raton, pp 467–477
Whittaker RH, Feeny PP (1971) Allelochemics: chemical interactions among species. Science 171:757–770
Willis RJ (1985) The historical basis of the concept of allelopathy. J Hist Biol 18:71–102
Wink M, Latz-Brüning B (1995) Allelopathic properties of alkaloids and other natural products: possible modes of action. In: Inderjit, Dakshini KMM, Einhellig FA (eds) Allelopathy: organisms, processes and applications. American Chemical Society, Washington DC, pp 117–126
Wu H, Haig T, Pratley J, Lemerle D, An M (2000) Distribution and exudation of allelochemicals in wheat, Triticum aestivum. J Chem Ecol 26:2141–2154
Yang CF (1996) Action of allelochemicals on algal growth and photosystem II efficiency. MSc thesis, Southwest Missouri State University, Springfield, MO
Yang X, Scheffler B, Weston LA (2001) Analysis of gene expression related to sorgoleone production using mRNA differential display. Proc WSSA 41:37
Acknowledgements
We sincerely thank Drs. Frank Dayan, Agnes Rimando and two anonymous reviewers for making constructive comments on the manuscript. Inderjit would like to thank Dr. B. Hari Gopal of the Department of Science and Technology, India for his help and encouragement in various ways.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Inderjit, ., Duke, S.O. Ecophysiological aspects of allelopathy. Planta 217, 529–539 (2003). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00425-003-1054-z
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00425-003-1054-z