Abstract
This review surveys the statistics of solar X-ray flares, emphasising the new views that RHESSI has given us of the weaker events (the microflares). The new data reveal that these microflares strongly resemble more energetic events in most respects; they occur solely within active regions and exhibit high-temperature/nonthermal emissions in approximately the same proportion as major events. We discuss the distributions of flare parameters (e.g., peak flux) and how these parameters correlate, for instance via the Neupert effect. We also highlight the systematic biases involved in intercomparing data representing many decades of event magnitude. The intermittency of the flare/microflare occurrence, both in space and in time, argues that these discrete events do not explain general coronal heating, either in active regions or in the quiet Sun.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
W.P. Abbett, S.L. Hawley, Astrophys. J. 521, 906 (1999). doi:10.1086/307576
I.A. Ahmad, D.F. Webb, Sol. Phys. 58, 323 (1978). doi:10.1007/BF00157278
K. Akabane, Publ. Astron. Soc. Jpn. 8, 173 (1956).
D. Alexander, A.G. Daou, Astrophys. J. 666, 1268 (2007). doi:10.1086/520331
K.A. Anderson, S.R. Kane, J.H. Primbsch, R.H. Weitzmann, W.D. Evans, R.W. Klebesadel, W.P. Aiello, IEEE Trans. Geosci. Electron. 16, 157 (1978)
M.J. Aschwanden, Advances in Space Research 39, 1867 (2007). doi:10.1016/j.asr.2007.03.050
M.J. Aschwanden, P. Charbonneau, Astrophys. J. Lett. 566, L59 (2002). doi:10.1086/339451
M.J. Aschwanden, C.E. Parnell, Astrophys. J. 572, 1048 (2002). doi:10.1086/340385
M.J. Aschwanden, B.R. Dennis, A.O. Benz, Astrophys. J. 497, 972 (1998). doi:10.1086/305484
M.J. Aschwanden, T.D. Tarbell, R.W. Nightingale, C.J. Schrijver, A. Title, C.C. Kankelborg, P. Martens, H.P. Warren, Astrophys. J. 535, 1047 (2000)
M.J. Aschwanden, R.A. Stern, M. Güdel, Astrophys. J. 672, 659 (2008). arXiv:0710.2563, doi:10.1086/523926
H. Aurass, K.-L. Klein, P.C.H. Martens, Sol. Phys. 155, 203 (1994). doi:10.1007/BF00670741
T. Bai, Astrophys. J. 404, 805 (1993). doi:10.1086/172335
P. Bak, C. Tang, K. Wiesenfeld, Phys. Rev. Lett. 59, 381 (1987). doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.59.381
M. Battaglia, P.C. Grigis, A.O. Benz, Astron. Astrophys. 439, 737 (2005). arXiv:astro-ph/0505154, doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20053027
A.O. Benz, S. Krucker, Astrophys. J. 568, 413 (2002)
D.A. Biesecker, Ph.D. thesis, University of New Hampshire, 1994
P.L. Bornmann, Astrophys. J. 356, 733 (1990). doi:10.1086/168880
K.R. Bromund, J.M. McTiernan, S.R. Kane, Astrophys. J. 455, 733 (1995). doi:10.1086/176619
J.W. Brosius, K.J.H. Phillips, Astrophys. J. 613, 580 (2004). doi:10.1086/422873
J.C. Brown, Sol. Phys. 18, 489 (1971)
P.J. Cargill, J.A. Klimchuk, Astrophys. J. 478, 799 (1997). doi:10.1086/303816
P.J. Cargill, J.A. Klimchuk, Astrophys. J. 605, 911 (2004). doi:10.1086/382526
R.C. Carrington, Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 20, 13 (1859)
A. Caspi, R.P. Lin, Astrophys. J. Lett. 725, L161–L166 (2010). doi:10.1088/2041-8205/725/2/L161. arXiv:1105.2839
P. Charbonneau, S.W. McIntosh, H.-L. Liu, T.J. Bogdan, Sol. Phys. 203, 321 (2001). doi:10.1023/A:1013301521745
C. Chifor, H. Isobe, H.E. Mason, I.G. Hannah, P.R. Young, G. Del Zanna, S. Krucker, K. Ichimoto, Y. Katsukawa, T. Yokoyama, Astron. Astrophys. 491, 279 (2008). doi:10.1051/0004-6361:200810265
S. Christe, I.G. Hannah, S. Krucker, J. McTiernan, R.P. Lin, Astrophys. J. 677, 1385 (2008a). doi:10.1086/529011
S. Christe, S. Krucker, R.P. Lin, Astrophys. J. Lett. 680, L149 (2008b). doi:10.1086/589971
J.W. Cirtain, L. Golub, L. Lundquist, A. van Ballegooijen, A. Savcheva, M. Shimojo, E. DeLuca, S. Tsuneta, T. Sakao, K. Reeves, M. Weber, R. Kano, N. Narukage, K. Shibasaki, Science 318, 1580 (2007). doi:10.1126/science.1147050
E.W. Cliver, L. Svalgaard, Sol. Phys. 224, 407 (2004). doi:10.1007/s11207-005-4980-z
D.F. Crawford, D.L. Jauncey, H.S. Murdoch, Astrophys. J. 162, 405 (1970). doi:10.1086/150672
N. Crosby, N. Vilmer, N. Lund, R. Sunyaev, Astron. Astrophys. 334, 299 (1998)
N.B. Crosby, M.J. Aschwanden, B.R. Dennis, Sol. Phys. 143, 275 (1993)
D.W. Datlowe, M.J. Elcan, H.S. Hudson, Sol. Phys. 39, 155 (1974)
B.R. Dennis, Sol. Phys. 100, 465 (1985)
B.R. Dennis, D.M. Zarro, Sol. Phys. 146, 177 (1993)
J.F. Drake, Sol. Phys. 16, 152 (1971a). doi:10.1007/BF00154510
J.F. Drake, Sol. Phys. 16, 152 (1971b)
J.P. Eastwood, M.S. Wheatland, H.S. Hudson, S. Krucker, S.D. Bale, M. Maksimovic, K. Goetz, J. Bougeret, Astrophys. J. Lett. 708, L95 (2010). arXiv:0911.4131, doi:10.1088/2041-8205/708/2/L95
A.G. Emslie, B.R. Dennis, G.D. Holman, H.S. Hudson, J. Geophys. Res. 110(A9), 11103 (2005). doi:10.1029/2005JA011305
U. Feldman, G.A. Doschek, W.E. Behring, K.J.H. Phillips, Astrophys. J. 460, 1034 (1996). doi:10.1086/177030
U. Feldman, G.A. Doschek, J.A. Klimchuk, Astrophys. J. 474, 511 (1997). doi:10.1086/303428
G.H. Fisher, R.C. Canfield, A.N. McClymont, Astrophys. J. 289, 434 (1985). doi:10.1086/162903
L. Fletcher, I.G. Hannah, H.S. Hudson, T.R. Metcalf, Astrophys. J. 656, 1187 (2007). doi:10.1086/510446
L. Fletcher, B.R. Dennis, H.S. Hudson, S. Krucker, K. Phillips, A. Veronig, M. Battaglia, L. Bone, Q. Chen, P. Gallagher, P. Grigis, H. Ji, H. Liu, R.O. Milligan, M. Temmer, Space Sci. Rev. (2011)
L. Fritzova-Svestkova, R.C. Chase, Z. Svestka, Sol. Phys. 48, 275 (1976). doi:10.1007/BF00151996
E. Fuerst, A.O. Benz, W. Hirth, Astron. Astrophys. 107, 178 (1982)
D.E. Gary, M.D. Hartl, T. Shimizu, Astrophys. J. 477, 958 (1997). doi:10.1086/303748
L. Golub, A.S. Krieger, J.K. Silk, A.F. Timothy, G.S. Vaiana, Astrophys. J. Lett. 189, L93 (1974)
N. Gopalswamy, T.E.W. Payne, E.J. Schmahl, M.R. Kundu, J.R. Lemen, K.T. Strong, R.C. Canfield, J. de La Beaujardiere, Astrophys. J. 437, 522 (1994). doi:10.1086/175015
J.A. Grayson, S. Krucker, R.P. Lin, Astrophys. J. 707, 1588 (2009). doi:10.1088/0004-637X/707/2/1588
B. Gutenberg, C.F. Richter, Seismicity of the Earth and Associated Phenomena, 2nd edn. (Princeton University Press, Princeton, 1956)
I.G. Hannah, G.J. Hurford, H.S. Hudson, R.P. Lin, Rev. Sci. Instrum. 78, 4501 (2007a). doi:10.1063/1.2437120
I.G. Hannah, G.J. Hurford, H.S. Hudson, R.P. Lin, K. van Bibber, Astrophys. J. Lett. 659, L77 (2007b). arXiv:astro-ph/0702726, doi:10.1086/516750
I.G. Hannah, S. Christe, S. Krucker, G.J. Hurford, H.S. Hudson, R.P. Lin, Astrophys. J. 677, 704 (2008a). arXiv:0712.2544, doi:10.1086/529012
I.G. Hannah, S. Krucker, H.S. Hudson, S. Christe, R.P. Lin, Astron. Astrophys. 481, L45 (2008b). arXiv:0712.0369, doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20079019
I.G. Hannah, H.S. Hudson, G.J. Hurford, R.P. Lin, Astrophys. J. (2010)
H. Hara, K. Nakakubo-Morimoto, Astrophys. J. 589, 1062 (2003). doi:10.1086/374778
M.A. Hendry, J.F.L. Simmons, Astron. Astrophys. 237, 275 (1990)
R. Hodgson, Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 20, 15 (1859)
G.D. Holman, L. Sui, R.A. Schwartz, A.G. Emslie, Astrophys. J. Lett. 595, L97 (2003). doi:10.1086/378488
G.D. Holman, M.J. Aschwanden, H. Aurass, M. Battaglia, P.C. Grigis, E.P. Kontar, W. Liu, P. Saint-Hilaire, V.V. Zharkov, Space Sci. Rev. (2010)
H.S. Hudson, in Bulletin of the American Astronomical Society, vol. 23 (1991a), p. 1064
H.S. Hudson, Sol. Phys. 133, 357 (1991b)
H.S. Hudson, Astrophys. J. Lett. 663, L45 (2007) arXiv:0707.1118, doi:10.1086/519923
H.S. Hudson, L.E. Peterson, D.A. Schwartz, Astrophys. J. 157, 389 (1969)
S.W. Kahler, J. Geophys. Res. 87, 3439 (1982). doi:10.1029/JA087iA05p03439
J.I. Katz, J. Geophys. Res. 91, 10412 (1986). doi:10.1029/JB091iB10p10412
J. Kašparová, E.P. Kontar, J.C. Brown, Astron. Astrophys. 466, 705 (2007). arXiv:astro-ph/0701871, doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20066689
H.R.M. Kay, J.L. Culhane, L.K. Harra, S.A. Matthews, Advances in Space Research 32, 1051 (2003). doi:10.1016/S0273-1177(03)00308-9
A.L. Kiplinger, Astrophys. J. 453, 973 (1995). doi:10.1086/176457
A.L. Kiplinger, H.A. Garcia, in Bulletin of the American Astronomical Society, vol. 36 (2004), p. 739
E. Kontar, J. Brown, A. Emslie, W. Hajdas, G. Holman, G. Hurford, J. Kasparova, P. Mallik, A. Massone, M. McConnell, M. Piana, M. Prato, E. Schmahl, E. Suarez-Garcia, Space Sci. Rev. (2010)
E.P. Kontar, E. Dickson, J. Kašparová, Sol. Phys. 252, 139 (2008). arXiv:0805.1470, doi:10.1007/s11207-008-9249-x
G. Kopp, G. Lawrence, G. Rottman, Sol. Phys. 230, 129 (2005). doi:10.1007/s11207-005-7433-9
T. Kosugi, B.R. Dennis, K. Kai, Astrophys. J. 324, 1118 (1988). doi:10.1086/165967
J. Kotoku, R. Kano, S. Tsuneta, Y. Katsukawa, T. Shimizu, T. Sakao, K. Shibasaki, E.E. Deluca, K.E. Korreck, L. Golub, A. Bobra, Publ. Astron. Soc. Jpn. 59, 735 (2007)
S. Krucker, A.O. Benz, Astrophys. J. Lett. 501, L213 (1998). doi:10.1086/311474
S. Krucker, R.P. Lin, Astrophys. J. 673, 1181 (2008). doi:10.1086/524010
S. Krucker, A.O. Benz, T.S. Bastian, L.W. Acton, Astrophys. J. 488, 499 (1997). doi:10.1086/304686
S. Krucker, S. Christe, R.P. Lin, G.J. Hurford, R.A. Schwartz, Sol. Phys. 210, 445 (2002). doi:10.1023/A:1022404512780
T.A. Kucera, B.R. Dennis, R.A. Schwartz, D. Shaw, Astrophys. J. 475, 338 (1997). doi:10.1086/303532
M.R. Kundu, J.P. Raulin, N. Nitta, H.S. Hudson, M. Shimojo, K. Shibata, A. Raoult, Astrophys. J. Lett. 447, L135 (1995). doi:10.1086/309567
M.R. Kundu, G. Trottet, V.I. Garaimov, P.C. Grigis, E.J. Schmahl, Advances in Space Research 35, 1778 (2005). doi:10.1016/j.asr.2005.04.052
M.R. Kundu, E.J. Schmahl, P.C. Grigis, V.I. Garaimov, K. Shibasaki, Astron. Astrophys. 451, 691 (2006). doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20053987
E. Landi, K.J.H. Phillips, Astrophys. J. Suppl. Ser. 166, 421 (2006). doi:10.1086/506180
T.T. Lee, V. Petrosian, J.M. McTiernan, Astrophys. J. 412, 401 (1993). doi:10.1086/172929
T.T. Lee, V. Petrosian, J.M. McTiernan, Astrophys. J. 448, 915 (1995). doi:10.1086/176020
F. Lepreti, V. Carbone, P. Veltri, Astrophys. J. Lett. 555, L133 (2001). doi:10.1086/323178
W.H.G. Lewin, J. Doty, G.W. Clark, S.A. Rappaport, H.V.D. Bradt, R. Doxsey, D.R. Hearn, J.A. Hoffman, J.G. Jernigan, F.K. Li, W. Mayer, J. McClintock, F. Primini, J. Richardson, Astrophys. J. Lett. 207, L95 (1976). doi:10.1086/182188
R.P. Lin, Space Sci. Rev. 16, 189 (1974). doi:10.1007/BF00240886
R.P. Lin, H.S. Hudson, Sol. Phys. 50, 153 (1976). doi:10.1007/BF00206199
R.P. Lin, R.A. Schwartz, S.R. Kane, R.M. Pelling, K.C. Hurley, Astrophys. J. 283, 421 (1984). doi:10.1086/162321
R.P. Lin, P.T. Feffer, R.A. Schwartz, Astrophys. J. Lett. 557, L125 (2001a)
R.P. Lin, P.T. Feffer, R.A. Schwartz, Astrophys. J. Lett. 557, L125 (2001b). doi:10.1086/323270
R.P. Lin, B.R. Dennis, G.J. Hurford, D.M. Smith, A. Zehnder, P.R. Harvey, D.W. Curtis, D. Pankow, P. Turin, M. Bester, A. Csillaghy, M. Lewis, N. Madden, H.F. van Beek, M. Appleby, T. Raudorf, J. McTiernan, R. Ramaty, E. Schmahl, R. Schwartz, S. Krucker, R. Abiad, T. Quinn, P. Berg, M. Hashii, R. Sterling, R. Jackson, R. Pratt, R.D. Campbell, D. Malone, D. Landis, C.P. Barrington-Leigh, S. Slassi-Sennou, C. Cork, D. Clark, D. Amato, L. Orwig, R. Boyle, I.S. Banks, K. Shirey, A.K. Tolbert, D. Zarro, F. Snow, K. Thomsen, R. Henneck, A. McHedlishvili, P. Ming, M. Fivian, J. Jordan, R. Wanner, J. Crubb, J. Preble, M. Matranga, A. Benz, H. Hudson, R.C. Canfield, G.D. Holman, C. Crannell, T. Kosugi, A.G. Emslie, N. Vilmer, J.C. Brown, C. Johns-Krull, M. Aschwanden, T. Metcalf, A. Conway, Sol. Phys. 210, 3 (2002). doi:10.1023/A:1022428818870
R.E. Lingenfelter, H.S. Hudson, in The Ancient Sun: Fossil Record in the Earth, Moon and Meteorites, ed. by R.O. Repin, J.A. Eddy, R.B. Merrill (1980), pp. 69–79
Y.E. Litvinenko, Sol. Phys. 151, 195 (1994). doi:10.1007/BF00654092
C. Liu, J. Qiu, D.E. Gary, S. Krucker, H. Wang, Astrophys. J. 604, 442 (2004). doi:10.1086/381799
E.T. Lu, R.J. Hamilton, Astrophys. J. Lett. 380, L89 (1991). doi:10.1086/186180
E.T. Lu, R.J. Hamilton, J.M. McTiernan, K.R. Bromund, Astrophys. J. 412, 841 (1993). doi:10.1086/172966
K.G. McCracken, D.F. Smart, M.A. Shea, G.A.M. Dreschhoff, in International Cosmic Ray Conference, vol. 8 (2001), p. 3209
J.M. McTiernan, Astrophys. J. 697, 94 (2009). doi:10.1088/0004-637X/697/1/94
J.M. McTiernan, G.H. Fisher, P. Li, Astrophys. J. 514, 472 (1999). doi:10.1086/306924
R.O. Milligan, Private communication, 2009
Y.-J. Moon, G.S. Choe, H.S. Yun, Y.D. Park, J. Geophys. Res. 106, 29951 (2001). doi:10.1029/2000JA000224
Y.-J. Moon, G.S. Choe, Y.D. Park, H. Wang, P.T. Gallagher, J. Chae, H.S. Yun, P.R. Goode, Astrophys. J. 574, 434 (2002). doi:10.1086/340945
D. Moses, J.W. Cook, J.-D.F. Bartoe, G.E. Brueckner, K.P. Dere, D.F. Webb, J.M. Davis, J.W. Harvey, F. Recely, S.F. Martin, H. Zirin, Astrophys. J. 430, 913 (1994). doi:10.1086/174461
W.M. Neupert, Astrophys. J. Lett. 153, L59 (1968)
H.W. Newton, Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 103, 244 (1943)
A. Nindos, M.R. Kundu, S.M. White, Astrophys. J. 513, 983 (1999). doi:10.1086/306886
N. Nitta, Astrophys. J. 491, 402 (1997). doi:10.1086/304938
N. Nitta, T. Kosugi, Sol. Phys. 105, 73 (1986). doi:10.1007/BF00156378
N. Nitta, T.S. Bastian, M.J. Aschwanden, K.L. Harvey, K.T. Strong, Publ. Astron. Soc. Jpn. 44, L167 (1992)
R.A. Osten, S. Drake, J. Tueller, J. Cummings, M. Perri, A. Moretti, S. Covino, Astrophys. J. 654, 1052 (2007). arXiv:astro-ph/0609205, doi:10.1086/509252
E.N. Parker, Astrophys. J. 330, 474 (1988). doi:10.1086/166485
C.E. Parnell, Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 335, 389 (2002). doi:10.1046/j.1365-8711.2002.05618.x
C.E. Parnell, P.E. Jupp, Astrophys. J. 529, 554 (2000). doi:10.1086/308271
K.J.H. Phillips, Astrophys. J. 605, 921 (2004). doi:10.1086/382523
M. Pick, N. Vilmer, Astron. Astrophys. Rev. 6 (2008). doi:10.1007/s00159-008-0013-x
J.G. Porter, R.L. Moore, E.J. Reichmann, O. Engvold, K.L. Harvey, Astrophys. J. 323, 380 (1987). doi:10.1086/165835
W.H. Press, S.A. Teukolsky, W.T. Vetterling, B.P. Flannery, Numerical Recipes in C. The Art of Scientific Computing, 2nd edn. (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1992)
J. Qiu, C. Liu, D.E. Gary, G.M. Nita, H. Wang, Astrophys. J. 612, 530 (2004). doi:10.1086/422401
J.-P. Raulin, S.M. White, M.R. Kundu, A.V.R. Silva, K. Shibasaki, Astrophys. J. 522, 547 (1999). doi:10.1086/322974
D.V. Reames, Space Sci. Rev. 90, 413 (1999). doi:10.1023/A:1005105831781
R.S. Richardson, Publ. Astron. Soc. Pac. 56, 156 (1944)
R. Rosner, G.S. Vaiana, Astrophys. J. 222, 1104 (1978). doi:10.1086/156227
P. Saint-Hilaire, A.O. Benz, Astron. Astrophys. 435, 743 (2005). doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20041918
P. Saint-Hilaire, S. Krucker, R.P. Lin, Sol. Phys. 250, 53 (2008). doi:10.1007/s11207-008-9193-9
R. Saldanha, S. Krucker, R.P. Lin, Astrophys. J. 673, 1169 (2008). doi:10.1086/524929
N. Santangelo, H. Horstman, E. Horstman-Moretti, Sol. Phys. 29, 143 (1973). doi:10.1007/BF00153445
A. Savcheva, J. Cirtain, E.E. Deluca, L.L. Lundquist, L. Golub, M. Weber, M. Shimojo, K. Shibasaki, T. Sakao, N. Narukage, S. Tsuneta, R. Kano, Publ. Astron. Soc. Jpn. 59, 771 (2007)
A. Schadee, C. de Jager, Z. Svestka, Sol. Phys. 89, 287 (1983). doi:10.1007/BF00217252
R.A. Schwartz, B.R. Dennis, G.J. Fishman, C.A. Meegan, R.B. Wilson, W.S. Paciesas, in The Compton Observatory Science Workshop, ed. by C.R. Shrader, N. Gehrels, B. Dennis (1992), pp. 457–468
N.I. Shakhovskaia, Sol. Phys. 121, 375 (1989). doi:10.1007/BF00161707
K. Shibata, Y. Ishido, L.W. Acton, K.T. Strong, T. Hirayama, Y. Uchida, A.H. McAllister, R. Matsumoto, S. Tsuneta, T. Shimizu, H. Hara, T. Sakurai, K. Ichimoto, Y. Nishino, Y. Ogawara, Publ. Astron. Soc. Jpn. 44, L173 (1992)
T. Shimizu, Publ. Astron. Soc. Jpn. 47, 251 (1995)
T. Shimizu, R.A. Shine, A.M. Title, T.D. Tarbell, Z. Frank, Astrophys. J. 574, 1074 (2002). doi:10.1086/340998
M. Shimojo, S. Hashimoto, K. Shibata, T. Hirayama, H.S. Hudson, L.W. Acton, Publ. Astron. Soc. Jpn. 48, 123 (1996)
M. Shimojo, N. Narukage, R. Kano, T. Sakao, S. Tsuneta, K. Shibasaki, J.W. Cirtain, L.L. Lundquist, K. Reeves, A. Savcheva, Publ. Astron. Soc. Jpn. 59, 745 (2007)
A.V.R. Silva, H. Wang, D.E. Gary, Astrophys. J. 545, 1116 (2000). doi:10.1086/317822
H.J. Smith, E.V.P. Smith, Solar Flares (Macmillan, New York, 1963)
S. Stoiser, A.M. Veronig, H. Aurass, A. Hanslmeier, Sol. Phys. 246, 339 (2007). doi:10.1007/s11207-007-9066-7
K.T. Strong, K. Harvey, T. Hirayama, N. Nitta, T. Shimizu, S. Tsuneta, Publ. Astron. Soc. Jpn. 44, L161 (1992)
L. Sui, G.D. Holman, B.R. Dennis, Astrophys. J. 670, 862 (2007). doi:10.1086/522198
M. Takahashi, T. Watanabe, Adv. Space Res. 25, 1833 (2000). doi:10.1016/S0273-1177(99)00628-6
R.J. Thomas, R.G. Teske, Sol. Phys. 16, 431 (1971). doi:10.1007/BF00162486
S. Tsuneta, J.R. Lemen, in Physics of Solar and Stellar Coronae: G.S. Vaiana Memorial Symposium, Palermo, Italy, ed. by J.L. Linsky, S. Serio (1993), p. 113
B.T. Tsurutani, W.D. Gonzalez, G.S. Lakhina, S. Alex, J. Geophys. Res. (Space Phys.) 108, 1268 (2003). doi:10.1029/2002JA009504
A. Veronig, M. Temmer, A. Hanslmeier, W. Otruba, M. Messerotti, Astron. Astrophys. 382, 1070 (2002a). arXiv:astro-ph/0207234, doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20011694
A. Veronig, B. Vršnak, B.R. Dennis, M. Temmer, A. Hanslmeier, J. Magdalenić, Astron. Astrophys. 392, 699 (2002b). arXiv:astro-ph/0207217, doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20020947
A.M. Veronig, J.C. Brown, B.R. Dennis, R.A. Schwartz, L. Sui, A.K. Tolbert, Astrophys. J. 621, 482 (2005). doi:10.1086/427274
N. Vilmer, A.L. MacKinnon, G.J. Hurford, Space Sci. Rev. (2010)
B. Vršnak, D. Sudar, D. Ruždjak, Astron. Astrophys. 435, 1149 (2005). doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20042166
Y. Wang, J. Zhang, Astrophys. J. 665, 1428 (2007). arXiv:0808.2976, doi:10.1086/519765
M.S. Wheatland, Astrophys. J. Lett. 536, L109 (2000). arXiv:astro-ph/0005121, doi:10.1086/312739
M.S. Wheatland, Sol. Phys. 203, 87 (2001)
M.S. Wheatland, Astrophys. J. 609, 1134 (2004). arXiv:astro-ph/0403613, doi:10.1086/421261
M.S. Wheatland, Astrophys. J. 679, 1621 (2008). arXiv:0802.3931, doi:10.1086/587871
M.S. Wheatland, Astrophys. J. 710, 1324 (2010). arXiv:1001.1464, doi:10.1088/0004-637X/710/2/1324
M.S. Wheatland, S. Glukhov, Astrophys. J. 494, 858 (1998). doi:10.1086/305245
M.S. Wheatland, Y.E. Litvinenko, Sol. Phys. 211, 255 (2002)
M.S. Wheatland, P.A. Sturrock, J.M. McTiernan, Astrophys. J. 509, 448 (1998). doi:10.1086/306492
S.M. White, K. Arzner, S. Christe, F. Farnik, K.-L. Klein, M.R. Kundu, Z. Ning, J.-P. Raulin, A.V.R. Silva VA’alio, P. Saint-Hilaire, G. Trottet, A. Warmuth, Space Sci. Rev. (2010)
J.P. Wild, S.F. Smerd, A.A. Weiss, Annu. Rev. Astron. Astrophys. 1, 291 (1963). doi:10.1146/annurev.aa.01.090163.001451
J.A. Willick, Astrophys. J. Suppl. Ser. 92, 1 (1994). doi:10.1086/191957
T.N. Woods, F.G. Eparvier, J. Fontenla, J. Harder, G. Kopp, W.E. McClintock, G. Rottman, B. Smiley, M. Snow, Geophys. Res. Lett. 3110802 (2004)
S. Yashiro, S. Akiyama, N. Gopalswamy, R.A. Howard, Astrophys. J. Lett. 650, L143 (2006). arXiv:astro-ph/0609197, doi:10.1086/508876
S. Yashiro, N. Gopalswamy, G. Michalek, O.C. St. Cyr, S.P. Plunkett, N.B. Rich, R.A. Howard, J. Geophys. Res. 109(A18), 7105 (2004). doi:10.1029/2003JA010282
T. Yoshida, S. Tsuneta, Astrophys. J. 459, 342 (1996). doi:10.1086/176897