Abstract
This study examined whether perceived discrimination was related to antisocial behaviors (ASB) in a probability sample of Puerto Rican children living in the South Bronx, New York and the San Juan Metropolitan area of Puerto Rico (N = 1,271). After adjusting for a host of well-known factors associated with ASB, such as sociodemographic variables (i.e., age, gender, household composition), psychosocial stressors (i.e., stressful life events, exposure to violence), and various forms of violence and abuse (i.e., coercive parental discipline, verbal, psychological, physical and sexual abuse), perceived discrimination remained a robust correlate of ASB among both samples. Findings are discussed with reference to the detrimental associations of perceived discrimination.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
US. Bureau of the Census. The Hispanic Population. 2001. Available from http://www.census.gov/prod/2001pubs/c2kbr01-3.pdf. Accessed 28 Sept 2009.
Ramirez RR, Patricia de la Cruz, G. The Hispanic population in the United States: March 2002. Current population reports, P20545: US Census Bureau. Washington, DC. Available from http://www.census.gov/prod/2003pubs/p20-545.pdf. Accessed 28 Sept 2009.
Eaton DK, Kann L, Kinchen S, Shanklin S, Ross J, Hawkins J, et al. CDC Youth risk behavior surveillance summaries—United States, 2007. MMWR Surveill Summ. 2008;57(SS04):1–131.
World Health Organization. World report on violence and health. Geneva, Switzerland: World Organization. 2002. Available from http://whqlibdoc.who.int/publications/2002/9241545615_eng.pdf. Accessed 9 Nov 2009.
Hofstra MB, Van der Ende J, Verhulst FC. Pathways of self-reported problem behaviors from adolescence into adulthood. Am J Psychiatr. 2002;159(3):401–7.
Robins LN. Deviant children grown up. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatr. 1996;5(Suppl 1):44–6.
Bird HR, Canino G, Rubio-Stipec M, Gould MS, Ribera J, Sesman M, et al. Estimates of the prevalence of childhood maladjustment in a community survey in Puerto Rico. The use of combined measures. [erratum appears in Arch Gen Psychiat. 1994;51(5):429]. Arch Gen Psychiat. 1988;45(12):1120–6.
Bird HR, Canino GJ, Davies M, Zhang H, Ramirez R, Lahey BB. Prevalence and correlates of antisocial behaviors among three ethnic groups. J Abnorm Child Psychol. 2001;29(6):465–78.
Canino G, Shrout PE, Rubio-Stipec M, Bird HR, Bravo M, Ramirez R, et al. The DSM-IV rates of child and adolescent disorders in Puerto Rico: prevalence, correlates, service use, and the effects of impairment. Arch Gen Psychiat. 2004;61(1):85–93.
Costello EJ, Mustillo S, Erkanli A, Keeler G, Angold A. Prevalence and development of psychiatric disorders in childhood and adolescence. Arch Gen Psychiat. 2003;60(8):837–44.
Maughan B, Rowe R, Messer J, Goodman R, Meltzer H. Conduct disorder and oppositional defiant disorder in a national sample: developmental epidemiology. J Child Psychol Psyc. 2004;45(3):609–21.
Moffitt TE, Caspi A, Rutter M, Silva PA. Sex differences in antisocial behaviour: conduct disorder, delinquency, and violence in the Dunedin longitudinal study. Cambridge, UK; New York: Cambridge University Press; 2001.
Keegan Eamon M, Mulder C. Predicting antisocial behavior among Latino young adolescents: an ecological systems analysis. Am J Orthopsychiatry. 2005;75:117–27.
Pérez DJ, Fortuna L, Alegría M. Prevalence and correlates of everyday discrimination among US Latinos. J Community Psychol. 2008;36(4):421–33.
Fisher CB, Wallace SA, Fenton RE. Discrimination distress during adolescence. J Youth Adolesc. 2000;29:679–95.
Rivera FI. Acculturation, perceived discrimination and depression among a sample of Latino youth. Psychline: J Hisp Am Psychiatr. 2005;4(5):18–29.
Szalacha LA, Erkut S, Garcia Coll C, Alarcon O, Fields JP, Ceder I. Discrimination and Puerto Rican children’s and adolescents’ mental health. Cult Divers Ethnic Minority Psychol. 2003;9(2):141–55.
Duarte CS, Bird HR, Shrout PE, Wu P, Lewis-Fernandez R, Shen S, et al. Culture and psychiatric symptoms in Puerto Rican children: Longitudinal results from one ethnic group in two contexts. J Child Psychol Psychiatr. 2008;49(5):563–72.
Smokowski PR, Bacallao ML. Acculturation and aggression in Latino adolescents: a structural model focusing on cultural risk factors and assets. J Abnorm Child Psychol. 2006;34:659–73.
Loeber R, Burke JD, Lahey BB, Winters A, Zera M. Oppositional defiant and conduct disorder: a review of the past 10 years, part I. J Am Acad Child Psy. 2000;39:1468–84.
Mathijssen JJJP, Koot HM, Verhulst FC. Predicting change in problem behavior from child and family characteristics and stress in referred children and adolescents. Dev Psychopathol. 1999;11:305–20.
Hastings TL, Anderson SJ, Kelley ML. Gender differences in coping and daily stress in conduct-disordered and non–conduct-disordered adolescents. J Psychopatho Behav Assess. 1996;18:213–26.
Hawkins JD, Herrenkohl T, Farrington DP, Brewer D, Catalano RF, Harachi TW. A review of predictors of youth violence. In: Loeber R, Farrington DP, editors. Serious and Violent Juvenile Offenders: risk factors and successful intervention. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage; 1998. p. 107–46.
Straus MA, Mouradian V. Impulsive corporal punishment by mothers and antisocial behavior and impulsiveness of children. Behav Sci Law. 1998;16:353–74.
Dishion TJ, Patterson GR, Kavanagh KA. An experimental test of the coercion model: Linking theory, measurement, and intervention. In preventing antisocial behavior: Interventions from birth through adolescence. New York, NY. US: Guilford Press; 1992. p. 253–82.
Fergusson DM, Horwood LJ, Lynskey MT. Childhood sexual abuse and psychiatric disorder in young adulthood, II: psychiatric outcomes of childhood sexual abuse. J Am Acad Child Psyc. 1996;35:1365–74.
Stouthamer-Loeber M, Loeber R, Homish D, Wei E. Maltreatment of boys and the development of disruptive and delinquent behavior. Dev Psychopathol. 2001;13:941–55.
Trickett PK, Putnam FW. Developmental consequences of child sexual abuse. In: Trickett PK, Schellenbach CJ, editors. Violence against children in the family and the community. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association; 1998. p. 39–56.
Southwick-Bensley L, Van Eeenwyk J, Spieker S, Schoder J. Self-reported abuse history and adolescent problem behaviors. I. Antisocial and suicidal behaviors. J Adolesc Health. 1999;24(3):163–72.
Eddy J, Leve L, Fagot B. Coercive family processes: a replication and extension of Patterson’s coercion model. Aggressive Behav. 2001;27(1):14–25.
Agnew R. Foundation for a general strain theory. Criminology. 1992;30(1):47–87.
Merton RK. Social structure and anomie. Am Soc Rev. 1938;3:672–82.
Agnew R. Building of the foundation of general strain theory: specifying the types of strain most likely to lead to crime and delinquency. J Res Crime Delinquen. 2001;38(4):319–61.
Agnew R. Pressured into crime: an overview of general strain theory. Los Angeles: Roxbury; 2006.
Sanders-Phillips K, Settles-Reaves B, Walker D, Brownlow J. Social inequality and racial discrimination: risk factors for health disparities in children of color. Pediatrics. 2009;124:S176–86.
Loeber R, Hay D. Key issues in the development of aggression and violence from childhood to early adulthood. Ann Rev Psychol. 1997;48:371–410.
Prelow HM, Danoff-Burg S, Swenson RR, Pulgiano D. The impact of ecological risk and perceived discrimination on the psychological adjustment of African American and European American youth. J Community Psych. 2004;32(4):375–89.
López IR. “But you don’t look Puerto Rican”: the buffering effects of ethnic identity on the relation between skin color and self-esteem among Puerto Rican women. Cult Divers Ethn Min Psychol. 2008;14(2):102–8.
Bird HR, Shrout PE, Davies M, Canino G, Duarte CS, Shen S, et al. Longitudinal development of antisocial behaviors in young and early adolescent Puerto Rican children at two sites. J Am Acad Child Psyc. 2007;46(1):5–14.
Bird HR, Canino GJ, Davies M, Duarte CS, Febo V, Ramirez R, et al. A study of disruptive behavior disorders in Puerto Rican youth: I. background, design, and survey methods. J Am Acad Child Psyc. 2006;45(9):1032–41.
Bird HR, Davies M, Duarte CS, Shen S, Loeber R, Canino GJ. A study of disruptive behavior disorders in Puerto Rican youth: II. Baseline prevalence, comorbidity, and correlates in two sites. J Am Acad Child Psyc. 2006;45(9):1042–53.
Kish L. Survey sampling. New York: J. Wiley & Sons; 1965.
Canino G, Bravo M. The adaptation and testing of diagnostic and outcome measures for cross-cultural research. Int Rev Psychiat. 1994;32:281–6.
Matías-Carrelo LE, Chávez LM, Negrón G, Canino G, Aguilar-Gaxiola S, Hoppe S. The Spanish translation and cultural adaptation of five mental health outcome measures. Cult Med Psychiat. 2003;27:291–313.
Ribera J, Canino G, Rubio-Stipec M, Bravo M, Bauermeister J, Alegria M, et al. The Diagnostic Interview Schedule for Children (DISC-2.1) in Spanish: reliability in a Hispanic population. J Child Psychol Psychiatr. 1996;37:195–204.
Cervantes RC, Padilla AM, Salgado de Snyder N. Reliability and validity of the Hispanic Stress Inventory. Hisp J Behav Sci. 1990;12(1):76–82.
Cervantes RC, Padilla AM, de Salgado Snyder N. The Hispanic Stress Inventory: a culturally relevant approach to psychosocial assessment. Psychol Assess. 1991;3(3):438–47.
Bravo M, Ribera J, Rubio-Stipec M, Canino G, Shrout P, Ramirez R, et al. Test-retest reliability of the Spanish version of the Diagnostic Interview Schedule for Children (DISC-IV). J Abnorm Child Psychol. 2001;29(5):433–44.
Goodman SH, Hoven CW, Narrow WE, Cohen P, Fielding B, Alegria M, et al. Measurement of risk for mental disorders and competence in a psychiatric epidemiologic community survey: the National Institute of Mental Health Methods for the Epidemiology of Child and Adolescent Mental Disorders (MECA) Study. Soc Psych Psych Epid. 1998;33(4):162–73.
Johnson JH, McCutcheon SM. Assessing life stress in older children and adolescents: preliminary findings with life events checklist. In: Sarason G, Spielberger DD, editors. Stress and Anxiety. Washington, DC: Hemisphere; 1980.
Bird HR, Davies M, Canino G, Loeber R, Rubio-Stipec M, Shen S. Classification of antisocial behaviors along severity and frequency parameters. J Child Fam Stud. 2005;14:325–41.
Richters JE, Martinez P. The NIMH community violence project: I. Children as victims of and witnesses to violence. Psychiatry. 1993;56(1):7–21.
Raia JA. Perceived social support and coping as moderators of effects of children’s exposure to community violence. 1995. Doctoral dissertation, Los Angeles: UCLA.
Finkelhor D, Dziuba-Leatherman J. Children as victims of violence: a national survey. Pediatrics. 1994;94(4 Pt 1):413–20.
Research Triangle Institute. SUDAAN User’s Manual, Release 9.1. Research Triangle Park, NC: 2004. Research Triangle Institute.
Turner JR, Wheaton B, Lloyd DA. The epidemiology of social stress. Am Socio Rev. 1995;60:104–25.
Simons R, Simons L, Burt C, Drummund H, Stewart E, Brody G, et al. Supportive parenting moderates the effect of discrimination upon anger, hostile view of relationships, and violence among African American boys. J Health Soc Behav. 2006;47(4):373–89.
Smokowski P, David-Ferdon C, Stroupe N. Acculturation and violence in minority adolescents: a review of the empirical literature. J Primary Prev. 2009;30(3–4):215–63.
Samaniego R, Gonzales N. Multiple mediators of the effects of acculturation status on delinquency for Mexican American adolescents. Am J Community Psychol. 1999;27(2):189–210.
Putnam SE. The monsters in my head: posttraumatic stress disorder and the child survivor of sexual abuse. J Couns Dev. 2009;87:80–9.
Feiring C, Simon V, Cleland C. Childhood sexual abuse, stigmatization, internalizing symptoms, and the development of sexual difficulties and dating aggression. J Couns Clin Psych. 2009;77:127–37.
Sanders-Phillips K. Racial discrimination: a continuum of violence exposure for children of color. Clin Child Fam Psychol Rev. 2009;12(2):174–95.
Acknowledgments
Data for this study were obtained from the Boricua Youth Study (RO-1 MH56401), Hector Bird, P.I. Additionally, preparation of this article was supported by the following National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH) Grants: the UPR/CHA Exploratory EXPORT Center: Bridging Communities (MD000537-03), the Research Training in Transitions, Family and Mental Health Grant (MH019734), and the Mental Health Services and Systems Training Program Grant (MH016242-27).
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Rivera, F., López, I., Guarnaccia, P. et al. Perceived Discrimination and Antisocial Behaviors in Puerto Rican Children. J Immigrant Minority Health 13, 453–461 (2011). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10903-010-9421-x
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10903-010-9421-x