Abstract
Small-scale society furnishes the bread and butter of archeological research. Yet our understanding of what these communities did and how they achieved their purpose is still rudimentary. Using the ethnography of contact-era New Guinea, this paper presents a “social signaling” model of small-scale social systems that archeologists may find useful for contextualizing and interpreting the material record of these societies. It proposes that the organization of small-scale society was oriented, among other goals, towards biological and social reproduction, subsistence optimization, and military defense. To advance these multiple collective interests, however, these communities had to deal with three problems: an optimality problem, a conflict-of-interest problem, and a free-rider problem. The optimality problem was solved with a modular (or segmented) social structure, the conflict-of-interest problem by a process of social signaling, and these two solutions together operated to resolve the free-rider problems they created. In addition to explaining the structure and function of small-scale societies, the model provides a unified framework that can account for the ceremonial behaviors, core cultural conceptions, and leadership forms that these societies generated.
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Notes
Reproductive group size: Auyana (c. 3.5–4.3 members)—Robbins (1982, p. 248); Awa (7.4 members)—Boyd (1975, p. 149); Dani (Bokondini; c. 5.1 members)—Ploeg (1969, p. 22); Enga (Mae; five members)—Meggitt (1965, p. 20); Enga (Raiapu; 4.5 members)—Waddell (1972, p. 21); Gadsup (5.1 members)—DuToit (1974, p. 293); Yangoru Boiken (five to six members)—Roscoe (n.d.a).
Family as domestic economic unit: Anga (Yagwoia)—Fischer (1988, p. 69); Auyana—Robbins (1982, p. 102); Dani (Bokondini)—Ploeg (1969, p. 130); Enga (Mae)—Meggitt (1971, p. 197); Gadsup—DuToit (1974, p. 279). Some sources designate the unit associated with production and/or consumption of food as a “household” or “domestic unit” rather than as a “family,” but to judge from their size these groups are also reproductive groups. Among the Hewa, they average 6.9 people (Steadman 1971, pp. 126, 217) and, among the Narak, 4.8 people (Cook 1967, p. 67).
Nucleation and security: e.g., Abelam—Forge (1972, p. 367, 1990, p. 162; Lea 1964, p. 160); Amanab—Juillerat (1996, p. xxi); Bitara—Bragge (n.d., p. 401); Etoro —Kelly (1977, p. 136); Gnau—Lewis (1975, p. 19); Iwam (Sepik)—Laszlo (n.d., pp. 76, 79); Kamoro—Pouwer (n.d., p. 97); Upper Tor—Oosterwal (1961, pp. 22, 23, 53).
Security unit as defensive unit: Anggor—GR 1-52/53 (1952, p. 5; Huber 1974, pp. 47, 214); Arapesh (Ilahita)—Tuzin (1976, p. 59); Asmat (Kawenak)—Eyde (1967, pp. 276, 280); Awa —Boyd (1975, p. 96); Au—Philsooph (1980, p. 558); Bena Bena—Langness (1964b, p. 52); Bun—McDowell (1988, p. 127); Chimbu—Brown and Brookfield (1959, pp. 40, 51); Enga (Kyaka)—Bulmer (1960, p. 201); Etoro—Schieffelin (1991, p. 60); Fore—Glasse and Lindenbaum (1973, p. 365); Gadsup—Leininger (1966, p. 87); Gahuku-Gama —Read (1951, p. 156, 1971, pp. 215, 216); Gainj —Johnson (1982b, p. 160); Gimi—Glick (1963, p. 71); Hewa —Steadman (1971, p. 159); Huli —Glasse (1968, pp. 23,24, 34, 132); Iwam (Sepik)—Laszlo (n.d., pp. 71, 184); Rehburg (1974, p. 221); Jalé—Koch (1974, p. 135); Jaqai—Boelaars (1981, p. 20); Kaluli —Schieffelin (1991, p. 60); Kamano—Zuckerman (1984, pp. 294, 295); Kapauku —Pospisil (1963, p. 40); Manambu—Harrison (1993, p. 68); Melpa (Kaugel)—Bowers (1968, p. 136); Melpa (North)—Strathern (1971, p. 26); Tairora (Southern)—Mayer (1987, pp. 72, 94, 99, 103); Wahgi (North)—O’Hanlon (1989, pp. 24, 28); Wahgi (South)—Reay (1959, p. 54).
Security group and territory: Amanab—Juillerat (1996, pp. 6, 7); Anggor—Huber (1974, p. 33); Au—Fountain (1966, pp. 15, 26); Auyana—Robbins (1982, p. 105); Awa—Boyd (1975, p. 91); Bun—McDowell (1988, p. 127); Enga (Kyaka)—Bulmer (1960, p. 26); Enga (Mae)—Meggitt (1965, pp. 231, 232); Enga (Raiapu)—Feachem (1974, p. 12); Gadsup—Leininger (1966, p. 87); Iwam (May)—Paulsen (1992, pp. 213, 225); Maring—Rappaport (1968, pp. 17, 21); Melpa (North)—Strathern (1972a, b, p. 55); Mendi—Ryan (1961, p. 14); Yagaria—Smith (1981b, pp. 47, 48).
Security group as offensive unit: Arapesh (Ilahita)—Tuzin (1976, p. 59); Gadsup—Leininger (1966, p. 87); Hewa—Steadman (1971, p. 162); Kamano—Zuckerman (1984, pp. 294, 295); Manambu—Harrison (1993, p. 68); Polopa—Brown (1979, p. 722); Siane—Salisbury (1962, p. 15); Tairora (Southern)—Mayer (1987, p. 72).
Security group as (unspecified) military unit: Chuave —Warry (1987, p. 28); Enga (Raiapu)—Feachem (1974, p. 12); Gadsup—Leininger (1966, p. 93); Gebusi —Knauft (1985, p. 33); Hewa—Steadman (1971, p. 162); Maring—Clarke (1971, pp. 4, fn. 4, 24; Rappaport 1968, pp. 28, 111, 112); Melpa (Central)— Vicedom and Tischner (n.d., pp. 57, 58); Mendi —Ryan (1961, p. 14, 45); Polopa—Brown (1979, p. 713); Telefolmin—Brumbaugh (1981, p. 9); Usarufa—Bee (1974, pp. 133, 134, fn. 4).
Nested security groups: Asmat (Kawenak)—Eyde (1967, pp. 68, 71, 278, 280); Awa—Boyd and Ito (1988, p. 53); Gadsup—Leininger (1966, pp. 87, 93); Gahuku-Gama —Read (1971, pp. 215, 216); Huli —Glasse (1968, pp. 23, 24, 34, 132); Iwam (Sepik)—Laszlo (n.d., pp. 71, 184; Rehburg 1974, pp. 220, 221); Melpa (North)—Strathern (1971, pp. 18, 20); Mendi —Ryan (1961, pp. 14, 45); Tairora (Southern)—Mayer (1987, pp. 29, 72, 88, 99); Wahgi (North)—O’Hanlon (1989, pp. 24, 28); Wahgi (South)—Reay (1959, pp. 35, 54, 113).
Ethnographic descriptions of these diplomatic networks, or “alliances,” are too numerous to cite. References to typical networks among a hunter-forager group (Sanio) can be found in AMB 3-68/69 (1968, n.p.); a hunter-sago planter group (Au) in Philsooph (1980, p. 112); a sago-fish trading group (Iatmul) in Stanek (1983, pp. 48–50); a hunter-horticultural group (Tifal) in Cranstone (1968, p. 610); a pig-rearing horticultural group (Abelam) in Kaberry (1971, pp. 40, 63); and a pig-rearing agricultural group (Yale) in Koch (1974, p. 135). Sago eaters who depended heavily on fishing appear to have been the principal exceptions to the general rule that security structures forged extensive diplomatic relations with those around them: among these groups, “alliances” were commonly either minimal or very temporary, perhaps lasting no longer than the duration of a communal head-hunt.
Strength in numbers, see also: Abelam (Central)—Kaberry (1971, p. 44); Au—Philsooph (1980, p. 403); Awa—Boyd and Ito (1988, p. 53); Bun—McDowell (1988, p. 127); Duna—Modjeska (1977, p. 68); Gahuku-Gama—Read (1965, pp. 70, 215, 221); Gimi—Bragginton (1975, pp. 53, 84, 85); Gnau —Lewis (1975, pp. 20, 21); Iatmul—Walstab (1924, p. 9); Narak—Cook and Pflanz-Cook (1988, pp. 78, 79); Tairora (Southern)—Mayer (1987, p. 66); Wahgi (North)—O’Hanlon (1989, p. 32); Wahgi (South)—Reay (1959, p. 33).
Importance of and concerns about numbers, see also: Abelam (Central)—Kaberry (1971, p. 67); Abelam (Wosera)—Curry (1992, pp. 130, 135, fn. 5); Amanab—Juillerat (1996, p. 8); Au—Philsooph (1980, pp. 91, 92, 333, 403); Bahinemo—Dye and Dye Bakker (1991, pp. 4, 5); Enga (Mae)—Meggitt (1965, p. 15); Gadsup—Leininger (1966, p. 102); Gimi—Bragginton (1975, p. 53); Gnau —Lewis (1975, pp. 21, 25); Gururumba—Newman (1962, pp. 40, 65); Jaqai—Boelaars (1981, p. 22); Kamoro—Pouwer (n.d., p. 97); Mendi—Ryan (1961, p. 36); Mianmin (East)—Morren (1974, p. 116); Mianmin (West)—Gardner (1981, p. 96); Tairora (Northern)—Watson (1983, p. 193); Telefolmin—Brumbaugh (1981, p. 9).
Women contribute children to group strength, see also: Au—Philsooph (1980, p. 146); Gahuku-Gama—Read (1965, p. 153); Gimi—Glick (1963, p. 76); Jaqai—Boelaars (1958, p. 114); Melpa (Central)—Vicedom and Tischner (n.d., vol.2, p. 309); Narak—Cook and Pflanz-Cook (1988, pp. 78, 79); Wahgi (South)—Reay (1959, p. 75, 1984, p. 34).
Individual male strength, see also: Ama—Guddemi (1992, pp. 14, 140); Anga (Sambia)—Herdt (1987, pp. 30–32, 101–104); Awa—Boyd and Ito (1988, pp. 52, 53); Gadsup—Leininger (1966, p. 88); Gahuku–Gama—Read (1959, pp. 427, 428, 433, 434); Jaqai—Boelaars (1981, pp. 89, 90); Fore/Kamano/Usarufa—Berndt (1962, pp. 173, 174); Karawari—Telban (1998, p. 58); Koriki—Williams (1924, p. 64); Kwoma—Bowden (1983, pp. 92, 93, 113); Manambu—Harrison (1993, pp. 106, 107, 109, 120); Melpa (Central)—Strauss and Tischner (1990 [1962], p. 138); Tairora (Northern)—Watson (1971, pp. 267, 268); Waropen—Held (1957, p. 66).
Individual female strength, see also: Abelam (Central)—Kaberry (1941/42, pp. 210, 213); Alamblak—Edmiston and Edmiston (1989, p. 46); Gururumba—Newman (1962, p. 109); Kwoma—Whiting (1941, p. 72); Melpa (Kumdi)—Brandewie (1981, pp. 45, 152); Melpa (North)—Strathern (1972b, pp. 133, 134); Polopa—Anderson (1985, p. 77); Tairora (Southern)—Mayer (1987, pp. 155, 157); Wahgi (South)—Reay (1984, p. 48).
Conflict and avoidance of bloodshed within security group, see also: Abelam (Eastern)—Forge (n.d., p. 2); Amanab—Juillerat (1996, pp. 473, 497, 498); Anggor—Huber (1974, pp. 59, 90–94); Asmat (Kawenak)—Eyde (1967, p. 332); Au—Philsooph (1980, p. 90); Enga (Kyaka)—Bulmer (1960, pp. 215, 216); Fore—Glasse and Lindenbaum (1973, p. 365); Gadsup—DuToit (1974, pp. 61, 86, 87, 100); Gimi—Bragginton (1975, p. 130); Hewa—Steadman (1971, p. 219); Kapauku—Pospisil (1958, p. 108); Melpa (Kaugel)—Bowers (1968, p. 167); Melpa (North)—Strathern (1971, p. 26); Mendi—Ryan (1961, pp. 129, 230); Polopa—Brown (1979, p. 722); Tairora (Southern)—Mayer (1987, pp. 72, 93); Wahgi (North)—O’Hanlon (1989, p. 26).
Importance of security group “strength,” see also: Abelam (Central)—Kaberry (1971, p. 44); Bena Bena—Langness (1969, p. 51); Chimbu—Brown (1972, pp. 43, 44, 47); Enga (Mae)—Meggitt (1965, p. 232); Enga (Raiapu)—Feachem (1974, p. 14); Gadsup—Leininger (1966, p. 102); Gahuku-Gama—Read (1965, pp. 70, 71); Gururumba—Newman (1962, p. 33); Jaqai—Boelaars (1981, p. 22); Kamano—Levine (1977, p. 43); Narak—Cook and Pflanz-Cook (1988, pp. 78, 79); Tairora (Southern)—Mayer (1987, p. 81); Wahgi (North)—Reay (1959, p. 1910.
Feasts and material distributions as indexing strength, see also: Chimbu—Brown (1972, p. 47); Enga (Mae)—Meggitt (1965, pp. 232, 233); Gahuku-Gama—Read (1959, p. 428); Gururumba—Newman (1962, pp. 33, 34, 131, 133); Mendi—Ryan (1961, pp. 205, 206); Narak—Cook and Pflanz-Cook (1988, p. 79); Upper Tor groups—Oosterwal (1963, pp. 83, 85); Wahgi (South)—Reay (1959, p. 141); Yangoru Boiken—Roscoe (n.d.a).
Material distributions as fighting: Abelam (Central)—Kaberry (1941/42, p. 344); Kalauna—Young (1971); Kewa—MacDonald (1991, p. 190); Melpa (North)—Strathern (1971, pp. 54, 95, 129); New Guinea (General)—Strathern (1985); Nopuk—Oosterwal (1967, pp. 171, 173); Polopa—Brown (1979); Urat—Allen (1976, p. 42); Upper Tor groups—Oosterwal (1963, p. 83); Waropen—Held (1957, pp. 165, 226).
Performance as fighting: Gahuku-Gama—Read (1955, p. 273); Gururumba—Newman (1962, p. 316); Manambu—Harrison (1993, pp. 113, 121, 122); Maring—Mettgoff (1985, p. 68); Rappaport (1968, pp. 195, 196); Nopuk—Oosterwal (1967, pp. 173, 174); Samarokena—van der Leeden (1962, pp. 98, 99); Tairorora—Watson (1971, p. 244); Upper Tor groups—Oosterwal (1963, pp. 87, 88).
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Acknowledgments
For comments on earlier versions of this paper, I deeply appreciate the assistance of Rebecca Bird, Cathy Cameron, Ulrike Claas, Brian Hayden, Terry Hays, Eric Alden Smith, and Pete Vayda. I owe a special debt to Bird, who first drew my attention to the importance of signaling behavior in animals and humans. For funding the collection of ethnographic documents, I am grateful to the American Philosophical Society, the Friends of the Geisel Library (San Diego), the Fulbright-Hays Area Studies program, the Institute for Intercultural Studies, and the National Science Foundation. Suffice it to say, none of these individuals or institutions bears any responsibility for the idiocies and errors that I have surely propagated.
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Roscoe, P. Social Signaling and the Organization of Small-Scale Society: The Case of Contact-Era New Guinea. J Archaeol Method Theory 16, 69–116 (2009). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10816-009-9062-3
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10816-009-9062-3