Skip to main content
Log in

Friendship in High-functioning Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder: Mixed and Non-mixed Dyads

  • Original Paper
  • Published:
Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Friendships containing a child with autism and a friend with typical development (“mixed” friendships, n = 26) and those of children with autism and a friend with a disability (“non-mixed,” n = 16) were contrasted with friendships of typically developing subjects and their friends (n = 31). Measures included dyadic interaction samples, and interview and questionnaire data from subjects, friends, and parents. Mixed friendship interactions resembled typical friendships. Participants in mixed friendships were more responsive to one another, had stronger receptive language skills, exhibited greater positive social orientation and cohesion, and demonstrated more complex coordinated play than in the non-mixed dyads. Exposure to typical peers appears to have significant effects on friendship behaviors.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • American Psychiatric Association. (1994). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed.). Washington, DC: Author.

    Google Scholar 

  • American Psychiatric Association. (2000). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th TR-ed.). Washington, DC: Author.

    Google Scholar 

  • Azmitia, M. (2001). Self, self-Esteem, conflicts, and best friendships in early adolescence. In T. M. Brinthaupt & R. P. Lipka (Eds.), Understanding the self of the early adolescent Albany, NY: SUNY Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Asher, S. R., Parker, J. G., & Walker, D. L. (1996). Distinguishing friendship from acceptance: Implications for intervention and assessment. In W. M. Bukowski, A. F. Newcomb, & W. W. Hartup (Eds.), The company they keep: Friendships in childhood and adolescence (pp. 366–406). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bauminger, N., & Kasari, C. (2000). Loneliness and friendship in high-functioning children with autism. Child Development, 71, 447–456.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bauminger, N., & Kimhi, I. (in press). Social information processing, security of attachment and emotion regulation in children with learning disabilities. Journal of Learning Disabilities.

  • Bauminger, N., Rogers, S. J., Aviezer, A., & Solomon, M. (2005). The friendship observation scale (FOS). Unpublished manual, Bar Ilan University, Israel and University of California, Davis, CA.

  • Bauminger, N., Schorr-Edelsztein, H., & Morash, J. (2005). Social information processing and emotional understanding in children with learning disabilities. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 38, 45–61.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bauminger, N., & Shulman, C. (2003). The development and maintenance of friendship in high-functioning children with autism: Maternal perception. Autism, the International Journal of Research and Practice, 7, 81–97.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bauminger, N., Shulman, C., & Agam, G. (2003). Peer interaction and loneliness in high functioning children with autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 33, 489–507.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Berlin, L. J., & Cassidy, J. (1999). Relations among relationships: Contribution from attachment theory and research. In J. Cassidy, & P. R. Shaver (Eds.), Handbook of attachment: Theory, research, and clinical applications (pp. 688–712). New York: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Booth-LaForce, C., Rubin, K. H., Rose-Krasnor, L., & Burgess, K. B. (2005). Attachment and friendship predictors pf psychosocial functioning in middle childhood, the mediating roles of social support and self-worth. In K. A. Kerns & R. A. Richardson (Eds.), Attachment in middle childhood (pp. 161–188). New York: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bost, K. K. (1995). Mother and child reports of preschool children’s social support networks: Network correlates of peer acceptance. Social Development, 4, 149–164.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bowlby, J. (1973). Attachment and loss: Separation anxiety and anger. New York: Basic Books.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brody, G. H., Stoneman, Z., & McKinnon, C. E. (1982). Role asymmetries in interactions among school-age children, their younger siblings and their friends. Child Development, 53, 1364–1370.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Buhrmester, D. (1990). Intimacy of friendships, interpersonal competence and adjustment during preadolescence and adolescence. Child Development, 61, 1101–1111.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Burgess, K. B., Wojslawowicz, J. C., Rubin, K. H., Rose-Krasnor, L., & Booth-LaForce, C. (2006). Social information processing and coping strategies of shy/withdrawn and aggressive children: Does friendship matter? Child Development, 77, 371–383.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Buysse, V. (1993). Friendships of preschoolers with disabilities in community-based child care settings. Journal of Early Intervention, 17, 380–395.

    Google Scholar 

  • Church, C., Alinsanski, S., & Amanullah, S. (2000). The social, behavioural, and academic experiences of children with Asperger syndrome. Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities, 15, 12–20.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cook, T. D., Herman, M. R., Phillips, M., & Settersten, R. A. (2002). Some ways in which neighborhoods, nuclear families, friendship groups, and schools jointly affect changes in early adolescent development. Child Development, 73, 1283–1309.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Contreras, J. M., Kerns, K. A., Weimer, B. L., Gentzler, A. L., & Tomich, P. L. (2000). Emotion regulation as a mediator of associations between mother-child attachment and peer relationships in middle childhood. Journal of Family Psychology, 14, 111–124.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Deater-Deckard, K. (2001). Annotation: Recent research examining the role of peer relationships in the development of psychopathology. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 42, 565–579.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dunn, J. (1993). Young children’s close relationships: Beyond attachment. London: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dunn, L. M., & Dunn, L. M. (1997). Examiner’s manual for the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test (3rd ed.). Circle Pines, MN: American Guidance Service.

    Google Scholar 

  • Eisenberg, N., Fabes, R. A., Guthrie, I. K., & Reiser, M. (2000). Dispositional emotionality and regulation: Their role in predicting quality and social functioning. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 78, 136–157.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Feshbach, N. (1993). The affective matching measure. Unpublished coding scale, University of California at Los Angeles.

  • Field, T. (1984). Play behaviors of handicapped children who have friends. In T. Field, J. L. Roopnarine, & M. Segal (Eds.), Friendship in normal and handicapped children (pp. 153–163). Nortwood, NJ: Albex.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fordham, K., & Stevenson-Hinde, J. (1999). Shyness, friendship quality, and adjustment during middle childhood. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 40, 757–768.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Farmer, T. W., & Farmer, E. M. Z. (1996). Social relationships of students with exceptionalities in mainstream classrooms: Social networks and homophily. Exceptional Children 62, 431–450.

    Google Scholar 

  • Frith, U. (2004). Emanuel Miller lecture: Confusion and controversies about Asperger syndrome. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 45, 672–686.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Grenot-Scheyer, M., Staub, D., Peck, C. A., & Schwartz, I. S. (1998). Reciprocity and friendships: Listening to the voices of children and youth with and without disabilities. In L. H. Meyer, P. Hyun-Sook, M. Grenot-Scheyer, I. S. Schwartz, & B. Harry (Eds.), Making friends (pp. 149–168). Baltimore: Paul H. Brooks.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gottman, J., & Parker, J. (1986). Conversations of friends: Speculations on affective development. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Grossmann, K. E., Grossmann, K., & Zimmermann, P. (1999). A wider view of attachment and exploration: Stability and change during years of immaturity. In J. Cassidy, & P. R. Shaver (Eds.), Handbook of attachment: Theory, research, and clinical applications (pp. 760–786). New York: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Granot, D., & Mayseless, O. (2001). Attachment security and adjustment to school in middle childhood. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 25, 530–541.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Harter, S. (1982). The perceived competence scale for children. Child Development, 53, 87–97.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hartup, W. W. (1992). Peer relations in early, middle childhood. In V. B. Van-Hasselt, & M. Hersen (Eds.), Handbook of social development: A lifespan perspective (pp. 257–281). New York: Plenum Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hartup, W. W., & Sancilo, M. F. (1986). Children’s friendships. In E. Schopler, & G. Mesibove (Eds.), Social behavior and autism (pp. 61–79). New York: Plenum Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hauck, M., Fein, D., Waterhouse, L., & Feinstein, C. (1995). Social initiations by autistic children to adults and other children. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 25, 579–595.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hay, D. F., Payne, A., & Chadwick, A. (2004). Peer relations in childhood. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 45, 84–108.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hobson, R. P. (1993). The emotional origins of social understanding. Philosophical Psychology, 6, 227–245.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hobson, P. (2002). The cradle of thought: Exploring the origin of thinking. London: Pan Macmillan Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hobson, P. (2005). Autism and emotion. In F. R. Volkmar, R. Paul, A. Klin., & D. Cohen (Eds.), Handbook of autism and pervasive developmental disorders (pp. 406–422). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Howes, C. (1983). Patterns of friendship. Child Development, 54, 1041–1053.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Howes, C. (1988). Peer interaction of young children. Monograph of the Society for Research in Child Development, 53 (1, Serial No. 217).

  • Howes, C. (1996). The earliest friendships. In W. M. Bukowski, A. F. Newcomb, & W. W. Hartup (Eds.), The company they keep: Friendship in childhood and adolescence (pp. 66–86). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Howlin, P., Goode, S., Hutton, J., & Rutter, M. (2004). Adult outcome for children with autism. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 45, 212–229.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jacobson, J. L., & Wille, D. E. (1986). The influence of attachment pattern on developmental changes in peer interaction from the toddler to the preschool period. Child Development, 5 7, 338–347.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kanner, L. (1943). Autistic disturbances of affective contact. Nervous Child, 2, 217–250.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kerns, K. A., Aspelmeier, J. A., Gentzler, A. L., & Grabill, C. M. (2001). Parent-child attachment and monitoring in middle childhood. Journal of Family Psychology, 15, 69–81.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kerns, K. A., Klepac, L., & Cole, A. K. (1996). Peer relationships and preadolescents’ perceptions of security in the child-mother relationships. Developmental Psychology, 32, 457–466.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kerns, K. A., Tomich, P., Aspelmeier, J. A., & Contreras, J. M. (2000). Attachment-based assessments of parent-child relationships in middle childhood. Developmental Psychology, 36, 614–626.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Koning, C., & Magill-Evans, J. (2001). Social and language skills in adolescent boys with Asperger syndrome. Autism, 5, 23–36.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Krasny, L., Williams, B. J., Provencal, S., & Ozonoff, S. (2003). Social skills interventions for autism spectrum: Essential ingredients and a model curriculum. Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics, 12, 107–122.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • LaFreniere, P. J., & Sroufe, L. A. (1985). Profiles of peer competence in the preschool: Interrelations between measures, influence of social ecology, and relation to attachment history. Developmental Psycholog, 21, 56–69.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lemerise, E. A., & Arsenio, W. F. (2000). An integral model of emotion processes and cognition in social information processing. Child Development, 71, 107–118.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lieberman, M., Doyle, A. B., & Markiewicz, D. (1999). Developmental patterns in security of attachment to mother and father in late childhood and early adolescence: Associations with peer relations. Child Development, 70, 202–223.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lopes, P. N., Salovey, P., Cote, S., & Beers, M. (2005). Emotion regulation abilities and the quality of social interaction. Emotion, 5, 113–118.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lord, C., Rutter, M., DiLavore, P. C., & Risi, S. (1999). The autism diagnostic observation schedule: The manual. Los Angeles: Western Psychological Services.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lord, C., Rutter, M., & LeCouteur, A. (1994). Autism diagnostic interview-revised: A revised version of a diagnostic interview for caregivers of individuals with possible pervasive developmental disorders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 19, 185–212.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Macintosh, K. E., & Dissanayake, C. (2004). Annotation: The similarities and differences between autistic disorder and Asperger’s disorder: A review of empirical evidence. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 45, 421–434.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Melson, G. F., Ladd, G. W., & Hsu, H.-C. (1993). Maternal support networks, maternal cognitions, and young children’s social and cognitive development. Child Development, 64, 1401–1417.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Miller, A. L., Fine, S. E., Gouley, K. K., Seifer, R., Dickstein, S., Shields, A. (2006). Showing and telling about emotions: Interrelations between facets of emotional competence and associations with classroom adjustment in Head Start preschoolers. Cognition and Emotion, 20, 1170–1192.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Newcomb, A. F., & Bagwell, C. L. (1996). The developmental significance of children’s friendship relations. In W. M. Bukowski, A. F. Newcomb, & W. W. Hartup (Eds.), The company they keep: Friendships in childhood and adolescence (pp. 289–321). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Obradovic, J., van Dulmen, M. H., Yates, T. M., & Carlson, E. A., & Egeland B. (2006). Developmental assessment of competence from early childhood to middle adolescence. Journal of Adolescnce, 29, 857–889.

    Google Scholar 

  • Orsmond, G., Krauss, M., & Seltzer, M. (2004). Peer relationships and social and recreational activities among adolescents and adults with autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disabilities, 34, 245–256.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Park, K. A., & Waters, E. (1989). Security of attachment and preschool friendships. Child Development, 60, 1076–1081.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Parker, J. G., & Gottman, J. M. (1989). Social and emotional development in a relational context: Friendship interaction from early childhood to adolescence. In T. Brendt, & G. Ladd (Eds.), Peer relationships in child development (pp. 95–131). New York: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Parker, J. G., Rubin, K. H., Price, J. M., & DeRosier, M. E. (1995). Peer relationships, child development, and adjustment: A developmental psychopathology perspective. In D. Cicchetti, & D. J. Cohen (Eds.), Developmental psychopathology (pp. 96–161). New York: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Paul, R. (2003). Promoting social communication in high functioning individuals with autistic spectrum disorders. Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics, 12, 87–106.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Perner, J., & Wilmer, H. (1985). “John thinks that Mary thinks that...:” attribution of second - order beliefs by 5-to 10-year-old children. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 60, 689–700.

    Google Scholar 

  • Resnick, G. (1993). Manual for the administration, coding and interpretation of the separation anxiety test (SAT) for 11 to 14-years old. Rockville, MD: Westat.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rose, A. J., & Asher, S. R. (2000). Children’s friendships. In C. Hendrick, & S. Hendrick (Eds.), Close relationships: A sourcebook (pp. 47–69). California: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rutgers, A. H., Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J., van Ijzendoorn, M. H., & van Berckelaer-Onnes, I. A. (2004). Autism and attachment: A meta-analytic review. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 45, 1123–1134.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Saarni, C. (1999). The development of emotional competence. New York: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sattler, J. M. (1988). Assessment of children (3rd ed.). San Diego: Author.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schneider, B. H., Atkinson, L., Tardiff, C. (2001). Child-parent attachment and children’s peer relations: A quantitative review. Developmental Psychology, 37, 68–100.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shany, M., Lachman, D., Shalem, Z., Bahat, A., & Zeiger, T. (2003). “Ma’akav:”Current mapping of reading and writing based on Israeli norms. Tel Aviv: Yesod. (Hebrew).

    Google Scholar 

  • Shiner, R., & Caspi, A. (2003) Personality differences in childhood and adolescence: Measurement, development, and consequences. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 44, 2–32.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sigman, M., & Ruskin, E. (1999). Continuity and change in the social competence of children with autism, Down Syndrome, and developmental delays. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 64 (1, Serial No. 256).

  • Siperstein, G. N., & Bak, J. J. (1989). Social relationships of adolescents with moderate mental retardation. Mental Retardation, 27, 5–10.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Siperstein, G. N., Leffert, J. S., & Wenz-Gross, M. (1997). The quality of friendships between children with and without learning problems. American Journal of Mental Retardation, 102, 111–125.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Solomon, M., Goodlin-Jones, B. L., & Anders, T. F. (2004). A social adjustment enhancement intervention for high functioning autism, Asperger’s syndrome, and pervasive developmental disorder NOS. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 34, 649–668.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sroufe, L. A., & Fleeson, J. (1986). Attachment and the construction of relationships. In W. W. Hartup, & Z. Rubin (Eds.), Relationships and development (pp. 51–72). Hillsdale: LEA.

    Google Scholar 

  • Strain, P. S. (1984). Social behavior patterns of handicapped and developmentally disabled friends pairs in mainstream preschoolers. Analysis and Intervention in Developmental Disabilities, 4, 15–28.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tager-Flusberg, H. (2001). A reexamination of the theory of mind hypothesis of autism. In J. Burack, T. Charman, N. Yirmiya, & P. Zelazo (Eds.), Development and autism: Perspectives from theory and research (pp. 173–193). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Waterhouse, L., & Fein, D. (1997). Perspectives on social impairment. In D. J. Cohen, & F. R. Volkmar (Eds.), Handbook of autism and developmental disorders (pp. 901–919). New York: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Waters, E., & Deane, K. E. (1985). Defining and assessing individual differences in attachment relationships: Q—Methodology and the organization of behavior in infancy and early childhood. In I. Bretherton, & E. Waters (Eds.), Growing points in attachment theory and research (pp. 41–65), Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 50(1–2, Serial No. 209).

  • Wilkinson, G. S. (1993). WRAT-3: Wide Range Achievement Test administration manual. Wilmington DC: Wide Range Inc.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wimpory, D. C., Hobson, R. P., Williams, J. M. G., & Nash, S. (2000). Are infants with autism socially engaged? A study of recent retrospective parental reports. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 30, 525–536.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Youngblade, L. M., & Belsky, J. (1992). Parent-child antecedents of 5-year-old close friendships: A longitudinal analysis. Developmental Psychology, 28, 700–713.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

This research was supported by the United States—Israel Binational Science Foundation (BSF). Special thanks are extended to the children who took part in this study. The authors would like to express their appreciation to Dov Har–Even for his statistical assistance.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Nirit Bauminger.

Appendix

Appendix

The Friendship Observation Scale (FOS) (Bauminger et al. 2005).

Definitions of Observed Friendship Manifestations of Target Child

  1. I.

    Positive social interaction: The child exhibits verbal and non-verbal social behaviors, verbalizations, and affects that lead to an effective friendship with peers; behaviors that serve to start or maintain social interaction, coded minute-by-minute in seven categories:

    1. 1.

      Goal-related behavior:

      1. a.

        Cooperative skills: Cooperative behaviors directly related to performance of task (construction, drawing), such as suggesting an action, providing or asking for information, or describing an action.

    2. 2.

      Sharing behavior: Behaviors aiming to share inner world (e.g., experiences, emotions, interest) with partner.

      1. a.

        Sharing experiences: Child tells friend about an experience or asks friend about his/her experiences (e.g., “What did you do over the weekend?”).

      2. b.

        Sharing emotions and pleasure: Child shares emotions or pleasure with friend (e.g., “It’s fun, isn’t it?”) or asks about his/her emotions (e.g., “Are you having fun?”).

      3. c.

        Showing and directing attention: Child directs friend’s attention to toys or objects in which child is interested (“Look at this” with or without eye gaze and/or pointing).

    3. 3

      Prosocial behavior: Behaviors reflecting caring for another and closeness.

      1. a.

        Affection: Child expresses affection toward friend, either verbally (“You’re nice,” “I like you”) or non-verbally (e.g., hugs, touches).

      2. b.

        Caring and empathy: Child expresses concern toward friend (“Are you ok?”) or shows awareness/understanding of friend’s feelings (“It looks to me like you are upset now”).

      3. c.

        Comforting and encouragement: Child directs spontaneous unprompted gesture, touch, or vocalization toward friend who is hurt in an attempt to help him/her feel better; or child contributes to the development of the activity by giving support and/or encouragement to friend (e.g., “You are doing great ...keep it up...“).

      4. d.

        Help: Child offers or receives help from friend.

      5. e.

        Compromise: Child reaches compromise as a result of shared discussion with friend (e.g., “OK, you convinced me; we will include dolphins in this drawing too”).

    4. 4.

      Behavior related to conversational profile: Behaviors reflecting quality of conversation between children.

      1. a.

        Small talk, silly talk, or gossip: While performing task, child makes conversation about something that is not task-related.

      2. b.

        Persuasion and negotiations: Child induces friend to do something through reasoning or argument, or tries to reach agreement by discussion (e.g., “If you’ll give me this red piece that I need, I’ll give you the long tube and you could make your side higher for the marbles”).

      3. c.

        Talk reflecting interest in friend: Child expresses interest in friend, excluding friend’s emotions (e.g., “What’s your favorite hobby?”).

    5. 5.

      Non-verbal behavior:

      1. a.

        Eye contact: Child looks into eyes of friend.

      2. b.

        Eye contact combined with smile: Child looks at and smiles toward friend.

      3. c.

        Looking toward friend: The child looks at friend (not maintaining eye contact) during activity and while talking/listening to friend, as a way of expressing interest in friend or friend’s activity.

    6. 6.

      Affect: Emotions expressed during interactions

      1. a.

        Positive: Child shows positive emotion like laughter.

      2. b.

        Shared laughter: Child is involved in shared laughter with friend due to same incident, and shows playfulness.

    7. 7.

      Play (only for construction scenario): Behaviors reflecting quality of play with friend.

      1. a.

        Parallel play: Child plays separately from friend but within the same proximity and with the same type of activity, with and without looking at friend.

      2. b.

        Simple social play: Child is involved in simple play with friend, including taking turns, sharing object, physical games, but not cooperative play.

      3. c.

        Collaborative-cooperative play: Child plays jointly in coordination with friend.

      4. d.

        Unoccupied: Child is not occupied with task or anything else, but may look at target materials (marble game/drawing utensils).

  2. IIa

    Global individual child evaluation: Behaviors reflecting coder’s general evaluation over entire interaction, coded only for the target child, in three categories:

    • Role-related behaviors: Estimation of child’s role pattern (leader, follower) during interaction, on a range between Child follows peer (1) and Child makes major decisions throughout activities (7).

    • Conversational flow (speech): Estimation of appropriate fluency, intonation, rhythm, and expressivity in child’s speech, coded on a six-point scale ranging from poor fluency, intonation, rhythm, and expressivity (1) to complete, appropriate conversational flow scores (6).

    • Conversational skills: Estimation of to and fro usage of words and phrases in social conversation on a three-point scale: No social conversation at all during entire activity time except task-related talk (1); Very limited conversation, one or two turns, where child is either initiator or responder (2); and Child continues social conversation and develops it pertaining to what friend said (3).

Definitions of Observed Dyadic Components

  1. IIb

    Global dyadic evaluation: Behaviors that reflect a general evaluation of the coder over the entire interaction, coded with regard to both children participating in the interaction, in two categories:

    • Emotional bonding, affective closeness: Estimation of level of closeness reflected between children during the interaction, based on shared look, shared laughter or smile, reflection of affection (hugs), or verbalizations reflecting closeness, on a scale ranging from low (1) to high (5).

    • Shared fun/enjoyment in interaction: Estimation of how much fun children experienced just from being together, where task was less important than social interaction between friends, on a scale ranging from low (1) to high (3).

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Bauminger, N., Solomon, M., Aviezer, A. et al. Friendship in High-functioning Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder: Mixed and Non-mixed Dyads. J Autism Dev Disord 38, 1211–1229 (2008). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-007-0501-2

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-007-0501-2

Keywords

Navigation