Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Nitrogen Cycles: Past, Present, and Future

  • Published:
Biogeochemistry Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

This paper contrasts the natural and anthropogenic controls on the conversion of unreactive N2 to more reactive forms of nitrogen (Nr). A variety of data sets are used to construct global N budgets for 1860 and the early 1990s and to make projections for the global N budget in 2050. Regional N budgets for Asia, North America, and other major regions for the early 1990s, as well as the marine N budget, are presented to Highlight the dominant fluxes of nitrogen in each region. Important findings are that human activities increasingly dominate the N budget at the global and at most regional scales, the terrestrial and open ocean N budgets are essentially disconnected, and the fixed forms of N are accumulating in most environmental reservoirs. The largest uncertainties in our understanding of the N budget at most scales are the rates of natural biological nitrogen fixation, the amount of Nr storage in most environmental reservoirs, and the production rates of N2 by denitrification.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Aber J.D., Magill A., McNulty S.G., Boone R.D., Nadelhoffer K.J., Downs M. and Hallett R. 1995. Forest biogeochemistry and primary production altered by nitrogen saturation. Water Air Soil Pollut. 85: 1665–1670.

    Google Scholar 

  • Aber J.D., McDowell W.H., Nadelhoffer K.J., Magill A., Berntson G., Kamakea M., McNulty S.G., Currie W., Rustad L. and Fernandez I. 1998. Nitrogen saturation in temperate forest ecosystems: hypotheses revisited. BioScience 48: 921–934.

    Google Scholar 

  • Agrawal G.D., Lunkad S.K. and Malkhed T. 1999. Diffuse agricultural nitrate pollution of groundwaters in India. Water Sci. Technol. 39: 67–75.

    Google Scholar 

  • Alexander R.B., Johnes P.J., Boyer E.W. and Smith R.A. 2002. A comparison of methods for estimating the riverine export of nitrogen from large watersheds. Biogeochemistry 57/58: 295–339.

    Google Scholar 

  • Aller R.C., Mackin J.E., Ullman W.J., Wang C.H., Tsai S.M., Jin J.C., Sui Y.N. and Hong J.Z. 1985. Early chemical diagenesis,sediment-water solute exchange, and storage of reactive organic matter near the mouth of the Changjiang, East China Sea. Continental Shelf Res. 4(1–2): 227–251.

    Google Scholar 

  • Altabet M.A., Francois R., Murray D.W. and Prell W.L. 1995. Climate-related variations in denitrification in the Arabian Sea from sediment 15N/14N ratios. Nature 373: 506–510.

    Google Scholar 

  • Asner G.P., Townsend A.R., Riley W.J., Matson P.A., Neff J.C. and Cleveland C.C. 2001. Physical and biogeochemical controls over terrestrial ecosystem responses to nitrogen deposition. Biogeochemistry 54: 1–39.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ayres R.U., Schlesinger W.H. and Socolow R.H. 1994. Human impacts on the carbon and nitrogen cycles. In: Socolow R.H., Andrews C., Berkhout R. and Thomas V. (eds), Industrial Ecology and Global Change. Cambridge University Press, New York, pp. 121–155.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bacon P.E. and Freney J.R. 1989. Nitrogen loss from different tillage systems and the effect on cereal grain yield. Fert. Res. 20: 59–66.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bange H., Rixen T., Johansen A., Siefert R., Ramesh R., Ittekkot V., Hoffmann M. and Andreae M. 2000. A revised nitrogen budget for the Arabian Sea. Global Biogeochem. Cycles 14: 1283–1297.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bashkin V.N., Park S.U., Choi M.S. and Lee C.B. 2002. Nitrogen budgets for the Republic of Korea and the Yellow Sea region. Biogeochemistry 57–58: 387–403.

    Google Scholar 

  • Behrenfeld M.and Kolber Z. 1999. Widespread iron limitation in the South Pacific Ocean. Science 283: 840–843.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bender M., Ganning K.A., Froelich P.M., Heath G.R. and Maynard V. 1977. Interstitial nitrate profiles and oxidation of sedimentary organic matter in the eastern equatorial Atlantic. Science 198: 605–609.

    Google Scholar 

  • Billen G. 1978. Budget of nitrogen recycling in North Sea sediments off Belgian Coast. Estuarine Coastal Marine 7(2): 127–146.

    Google Scholar 

  • Binkley D., Cromack K. Jr. and Baker D.D. 1994. Nitrogen xation by red alder: biology, rates, and controls. In: Hibbs D.E. et al. (eds), The Biology and Management of Red Alder. Oregon State Univ. Press, Corvallis, pp. 57–72.

    Google Scholar 

  • Blundon D.J. and Dale M.R.T 1990. Dinitrogen xation (acetylene reduction) in primary succession near Mount Robson, British Columbia, Canada. Arct. Alp Res. 22: 255–263.

    Google Scholar 

  • Boesch D.F., Brinsfield R.B., Howarth R.W., Baker J.L., David M.B., Downsing J., Fretz A.T., Jaynes D.B., Keeney D.R., Lowarnace R., Miller K., Mitsch W.J., Nemazie D., Paerl H.W., Rabalais N.N., Randall G.W., Scavia D., Schepters J.S., Shabman L., Sharpley A.N., Simposon T.W., Staver K.W. and Townsend A. 2002. Improving water quality while maintaining agricultural production. Submitted manuscript.

  • Bonan G.B. 1996. A Land Surface Model (LSM Version 1.0) for Ecological, Hydrological and Atmospheric Studies: Technical Description and User 's Guide. NCAR Technical Note T.N.-417+STR. National Center for Atmospheric Research, Boulder, CO.

    Google Scholar 

  • Boring L.R. and Swank W.T. 1984. The role of black locust (Robinia pseudo-acacia ) in forest succession. J. Ecol. 72: 749–766.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bouwman A.F., van der Hoek K.W. and Olivier J.G.J. 1995. Uncertainty in the global source distribution of nitrous oxide. J. Geophys. Res. 100: 2785–2800.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bouwman A.F., Lee D.S., Asman W.A.H., Dentener F.J., van der Hoek K.W. and Olivier J.G.J. 1997. A global high-resolution emission inventory for ammonia. Global Biogeochem. Cycles 11: 561–578.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bouwman A.F., Bouman L.J.M and Batjes N.H. 2002. Estimation of global MH3 volatilization loss from synthetic fertilizers and animal manure applied to arable lands and grasslands. Global Biogeochem. Cycles 16(2): Art. No. 1024.

  • Boyer E.W. and Howarth R.H. (eds) 2002. The Nitrogen Cycles at Regional to Global Scales. Kluwer, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Boyer E.W., Goodale C.L., Jaworski N.A. and Howarth R.W. 2002. Anthropogenic nitrogen sources and relationships to riverine nitrogen export in the northeastern USA. Biogeochemistry 57–58: 137–169.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bradley M.J. and Jones B.M. 2002. Reducing global NO x emissions:promoting the development of advanced energy and transportation technologies. Ambio 31: 141–149.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brandes J.A. and Devol A.H. 2002. A global marine-fixed nitrogen isotopic budget: Implications for Holocene nitrogen cycling. Global Biogeochem. Cycles 16(4): Art. No. 1120.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brandes J., Devol A., Yoshinari T., Jayakumar D. and Naqvi S. 1998. Isotopic composition of nitrate in the central Arabian Sea and eastern tropical North Pacific: a tracer for mixing and nitrogen cycles. Limnol. Oceanogr. 43: 1680–1689.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brenkert A.L. (ed.) 1997. Northern Hemisphere Biome and Process Specific Forest Areas and Gross Merchantable Volumes: 1890–1990. CDIAC (Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center) Database DB1017 (2/1997). Oak Ridge National Laboratory, TN.

  • Broecker W.S. and Henderson G.M. 1998. The sequence of events surrounding termination II and their implications for the cause of glacial-interglacial CO2 changes. Paleoceanography 13: 352–364.

    Google Scholar 

  • Burkart M.R. and James D.E. 2003. Agricultural nitrogen trends in the Mississippi Basin, 1949–1997. In: Hellums D. (ed.), Agricultural Production Systems of the 21st Century: Challenges and Opportunities in Plant Nutrient Management. ASA Special Publication, Madison, WI.

    Google Scholar 

  • Butterback-Bahl K., Gasche R., Willibald G. and Papen H. 2002. Exchange of N-gases at the Höglwald forest—a summary. Plant Soil 240: 117–123.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cai G.X., Zhu Z.L., Trevitt A.C.F., Freney J.R. and Simpson J.R. 1986. Nitrogen loss from ammonium bicarbonate and urea fertilizers applied to flooded rice. Fert. Res. 10: 203–215.

    Google Scholar 

  • Capone D.G. 1983. Benthic nitrogen xation. In: Carpenter E.J. and Capone D.G. (eds), Nitrogen in the Marine Environment. Academic Press, New York, pp.105–137.

    Google Scholar 

  • Capone D.G. 2001. Marine nitrogen xation:what 's the fuss? Curr. Opin. Microbiol. 4: 341–348.

    Google Scholar 

  • Capone D.G. and Carpenter E.J. 1999. Nitrogen xation by marine cyanobacteria: historical and global perspectives. Bull. Inst.Oceanogr. Monaco 19: 235–256.

    Google Scholar 

  • Capone D.G., Zehr J., Paerl H., Bergman B. and Carpenter E.J. 1997. Trichodesmium: a globally significant marine cyanobacterium. Science 276: 1221–1229.

    Google Scholar 

  • Capone D.G., Subramaniam A., Montoya J., Voss M., Humborg C., Johansen A., Siefert R. and Carpenter E.J. 1998. An extensive bloom of the N2-fixing cyanobacterium, Trichodesmiumery-thraeum, in the Central Arabian Sea. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 172: 281–292.

    Google Scholar 

  • Capone D., Burns J.A., Montoya J.P., Michaels A.F., Subramaniam A. and Carpenter E.J. 2004. New nitrogen input to the tropical North Atlantic Ocean by nitrogen fixation by the cyano-bacterium, Trichodesmium spp. Global Biogeochemical Cycles.

  • Carpenter E.J. 1983a. Nitrogen xation by marine Oscillatoria (Trichodesmium) in the world's oceans. In: Carpenter E.J. and Capone D.G. (eds), Nitrogen in the Marine Environment. Academic Press, New York, pp. 65–103.

    Google Scholar 

  • Carpenter E.J. 1983b. Physiology and ecology of marine Oscillatoria (Trichodesmium ). Marine Biol. Lett. 4: 69–85.

    Google Scholar 

  • Carpenter E.J. and Capone D.G. 1992. Nitrogen fixation in Trichodesmium blooms. In: Carpenter E.J. (ed.), Marine Pelagic Cyanobacteria: Trichodesmium and other Diazotrophs. Kluwer, New York, pp. 211–217.

    Google Scholar 

  • Carpenter E.J. and Price C.C. 1977. Nitrogen fixation, distribution, and production of Oscillatoria (Trichodesmium) in the northwestern Atlantic Ocean and Caribbean Sea. Limnol. Oceanog. 22: 60–72.

    Google Scholar 

  • Carpenter E., Montoya J.P., Burns J., Mulholland M., Subramaniam A. and Capone D.G. 1999. Extensive bloom of a N2-fixing symbiotic association in the tropical Atlantic Ocean. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 188: 273–283.

    Google Scholar 

  • Carpenter E.J., Subramaniam A. and Capone D.G. 2004. Biomass and primary productivity of the cyanobacterium, Trichodesmium spp., in the southwestern tropical N Atlantic Ocean. Deep-Sea Research I 51: 173–203.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cassman K.G., Dobermann A.D. and Walters D. 2002. Agroecosystems, nitrogen management and economics. Ambio 31: 132–140.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chameides W.L., Kasibhatla P.S., Yienger J. and Levy H. II 1994. The growth of continental-scale metro-agro-plexes, regional ozone pollution, and world food production. Science 264: 74–77.

    Google Scholar 

  • Christensen J.P., Murray J.W., Devol A.H. and Codispoti L.A. 1987. Denitrification in continental shelf sediments has a major impact on the oceanic nitrogen budget. Global Biogeochem. Cycles 1: 97–116.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cleveland C.C., Townsend A.R., Schimel D.S., Fisher H., Howarth R.W., Hedin L.O., Perakis S.S., Latty E.F., Von Fischer J.C., Elseroad A. and Wasson M.F. 1999. Global patterns of terrestrial biological nitrogen (N2)fixation in natural ecosystems. Global Biogeochem. Cycles 13: 623–645.

    Google Scholar 

  • Codispoti L.A. and Richards F.A. 1976. Analysis of horizontal regime of denitrification in Eastern Tropical North Pacific. Limnol. Oceanog. 21: 379–388.

    Google Scholar 

  • Codispoti L., Brandes J., Christensen J., Devol A., Naqvi S., Paerl H. and Yoshinari T. 2001. The oceanic fixed nitrogen and nitrous oxide budgets: moving targets as we enter the anthropocene? Scientia Marina 65(Supp.2): 85–105.

    Google Scholar 

  • Conrad R. and Dentener F.J. 1999. The application of compensation point concepts in scaling of fluxes. In: Bouwman A.F. (ed.), Approaches to Scaling of Trace Gas Fluxes in Ecosystems. Elsevier, New York, pp. 203–216.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cornell S., Rendell A. and Jickells T. 1995. Atmospheric input of dissolved organic nitrogen in the oceans. Nature 376: 243–246.

    Google Scholar 

  • Crews T.E. 1999. The presence of nitrogen fixing legumes in terrestrial communities: evolutionary vs. ecological considerations. Biogeochemistry 46: 233–246.

    Google Scholar 

  • Craswell E.T. and Martin A.E. 1975a. Isotopic studies of the nitrogen balance in a cracking clay. I. Recovery of added nitrogen from soil and wheat in the glasshouse and gas lysimeter. Aust. J. Soil Res. 13: 43–52.

    Google Scholar 

  • Craswell E.T.and Martin A.E. 1975b. Isotopic studies of the nitrogen balance in a cracking clay. II. Recovery of nitrate 15N added to columns of packed soil and microplots growing wheat in the field. Aust. J. Soil Res. 13: 53–61.

    Google Scholar 

  • Davidson E.A. and Ackerman I.L. 1993. Changes in soil carbon inventories following cultivation of previously untilled soils. Biogeochemistry 20: 161–193.

    Google Scholar 

  • Davidson E.A. and Kingleee W 1997. A global inventory of nitric oxide emissions from soils. Nutr. Cycl. Agroecosyst. 48: 37–50.

    Google Scholar 

  • De Datta S.K., Trevitt A.C.F., Freney J.R., Obcemea W.N., Real J.G. and Simpson J.R. 1989. Measuring nitrogen losses from lowland rice using bulk aerodynamic and nitrogen-15 balance methods. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 53: 1275–1281.

    Google Scholar 

  • Delwiche C.C. 1970. The nitrogen cycle. Sci. Am. 223: 137–146.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dentener F.J. and Crutzen P.J. 1994. A three-dimensional model of the global ammonia cycle. J. Atmos. Chem. 19: 331–369.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dentener F.J. and Raes F. 2002. Greenhouse gases and atmospheric chemistry: towards integration of air pollution and climate change olicies. Third International Symposium on Non-CO2 Greenhouse Gases (NCGG-3). Maastricht, the Netherlands.

  • Deutsch C., Gruber N., Key R.M., Sarmiento J.L. and Ganachaud A. 2001. Denitrification and N2 fixation in the Pacific Ocean. Global Biogeochem. Cycles 15: 483–506.

    Google Scholar 

  • Devol A.H. 1991. Direct measurement of nitrogen gas fluxes from continental shelf sediments. Nature 349: 319–322.

    Google Scholar 

  • Devol A., Codispoti L. and Christensen J. 1997. Summer and winter denitrification rates in western Arctic shelf sediments. Cont. Shelf Res. 17: 1029–1050.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dise N.B. and Wright R.F. (eds) 1992. The NITREX Project, Commission of the European Communities; Ecosystems Research Rep. No. 2. Brussels.

  • Dise N.B. and Wright R.F. 1995. Nitrogen leaching from European forests in relation to nitrogen deposition. For. Ecol. Manage. 71: 153–161.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dore J.E., Brum J.R., Tupas L.M. and Karl D.M. 2002. Seasonal and interannual variability in sources of nitrogen supporting export in the oligotrophic subtropical North Pacific Ocean. Limnol. Oceanogr. 47: 1595–1607.

    Google Scholar 

  • EDC 2000. Global Land Cover Characterization. Accessible through the Eros Data Center Distributed Active Archive Center at http://edcdaac.usgs.gov/.

  • Emmer E. and Thunell R.C. 2000. Nitrogen isotope variations in Santa Barbara Basin sediments: implications for denitrication in the eastern tropical North Pacific during the last 50,000 years. Paleoceanography 15(4): 377–387.

    Google Scholar 

  • Erisman J.W., de Vries W., Kros H., Oenema O., van der Eerden L., van Zeijts H. and Smeulders S. 2001. An outlook for a national integrated nitrogen policy. Environ. Sci. Pol. 4: 87–95.

    Google Scholar 

  • ESRI 1993. Digital Chart of the World. Environmental Systems Research Institute, Inc., Redlands, California.

    Google Scholar 

  • Falkowski P. 1997. Evolution of the nitrogen cycle and its influence on biological sequestration of CO2 in the oceans. Nature 387: 272–273.

    Google Scholar 

  • Falkowski P. 2000. Rationalizing elemental ratios in unicellular algae. J. Phycol. 36: 3–6.

    Google Scholar 

  • FAO 2000. Fertilizer requirements in 2015 and 2030. Published by Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, ISBN 92-5-104450-3, pp. 29.

    Google Scholar 

  • FAO 2002. World agriculture: towards 2015/2040, Summary Report. Published by Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, ISBN 92-5-104761-8, 97 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • FAOSTAT 2000. FAO Statistical Databases. Accessible through the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations at http://apps.fao.org.

  • Farrell J.W., Pedersen T.F., Calvert S.E. and Nielsen B. 1995. Glacial-interglacial changes in nutrient utilization in the equatorial Pacific Ocean. Nature 377: 514–518.

    Google Scholar 

  • Febre Domene L. and Ayres R.U. 2001. Nitrogen's role in industrial systems. J. Indust. Ecol. 5: 77–103.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fekete B.M., Vörösmarty C.J. and Grabs W. 2002. High-resolution fields of global runoff combining observed river discharge and simulated water balances. Global Biogeochem. Cyles 16(3): Art. No. 1042.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fenn M.E., Poth M.A., Aber J.D., Baron J.S., Bormann B.T., Johnson D.W., Lemly A.D., McNulty S.G., Ryan D.F. and Stottlemyer R 1998. Nitrogen excess in North American ecosystems: predisposing factors, ecosystem responses and management strategies. Ecol. Appl. 8: 706–733.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fixen P.E. and West F.B. 2002. Nitrogen fertilizers: meeting the challenge. Ambio 31: 169–176.

    Google Scholar 

  • Follett J.R. and Follett R.F. 2001. Utilization and metabolism of nitrogen by humans. In: Follett R. and Hatfield J.L. (eds), Nitrogen in the Environment: Sources, Problems and Management. Elsevier, New York, pp. 65–92.

    Google Scholar 

  • Freney J.R., Trevitt A.C.F, De Datta S.K., Obcemea W.N. and Real J.G. 1990. The interdependence of ammonia volatilization and denitrification as nitrogen loss processes in flooded rice in the Philippines. Biol. Fert. Soils 9: 31–36.

    Google Scholar 

  • Freney J.R., Smith C.J. and Mosier A.R. 1992. Effect of a new nitrification inhibitor (wax coated calcium carbide) on transformations and recovery of fertilizer nitrogen by irrigated wheat. Fert. Res. 32: 1–11.

    Google Scholar 

  • Freney J.R., Chen D.L., Mosier A.R., Rochester I.J., Constable G.A. and Chalk P.M. 1993. Use of nitrification inhibitors to increase fertilizer nitrogen recovery and lint yield in irrigated cotton. Fert. Res. 34: 37–44.

    Google Scholar 

  • Freney J.R., Keerthisinghe D.G., Phongpan S., Chaiwanakupt P. and Harrington K. 1995. Effect of urease, nitrification and algal inhibitors on ammonia loss, and grain yield of flooded rice in Thailand. Fert. Res. 40: 225–233.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fuhrman J.A. and Capone D.G. 1991. Possible biogeochemical consequences of ocean fertilization. Limnol. Oceanogr. 36: 1951–1959.

    Google Scholar 

  • Galbally I.E., Freney J.R., Muirhead W.A., Simpson J.R., Trevitt A.C.F and Chalk P.M. 1987. Emission of nitrogen oxides (NOx)from a flooded soil fertilized with urea: relation to other nitrogen loss processes. J. Atmos. Chem. 5: 343–365.

    Google Scholar 

  • Galloway J.N. 1998. The global nitrogen cycle: changes and consequences. Environ. Pollut. 102(S1): 15–24.

    Google Scholar 

  • Galloway J.N. 2000. Nitrogen mobilization in Asia. Nutr. Cycl. Agroecosyst. 57: 1–12.

    Google Scholar 

  • Galloway J.N. and Cowling E.B. 2002. Reactive nitrogen and the world: two hundred years of change. Ambio 31: 64–77.

    Google Scholar 

  • Galloway J.N., Schlesinger W.H., Levy H. II, Michaels A. II and Schnoor J.L. 1995. Nitrogen fixation: anthropogenic enhancement–environmental response. Global Biogeochem. Sci. 9: 235–252.

    Google Scholar 

  • Galloway J.N., Howarth R.W., Michaels A.F., Nixon S.W., Prospero J.M. and Dentener F.J. 1996. Nitrogen and phosphorus budgets of the North Atlantic Ocean and its watershed. Biogeochemistry 35: 3–25.

    Google Scholar 

  • Galloway J.N., Cowling E.B., Seitzinger S.J. and Socolow R 2002. Reactive nitrogen: too much of a good thing? Ambio 31: 60–63.

    Google Scholar 

  • Galloway J.N., Aber J.D., Erisman J.W., Seitzinger S.P., Howarth R.H., Cowling E.B. and Cosby B.J. 2003. The nitrogen cascade. BioScience 53: 341–356.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ganeshram R.S., Pedersen T.F., Calvert S.E. and Murray J.W. 1995. Large changes in oceanic nutrient inventories from glacial to interglacial periods. Nature 376: 755–758.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ganeshram R., Pederson T.F., Calvert S.E. and Francois R. 2002. Reduced nitrogen fixation in the glacial ocean inferred from changes in marine nitrogen inventories and phosphorus inventories. Nature 415: 156–159.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gao Y., Kaufman J., Tanre D., Kolber D. and Falkowski P.G. 2001. Seasonal distribution of aeolian iron fluxes to the global ocean. Geophys. Res. Lett. 28: 29–32.

    Google Scholar 

  • Goering J.J., Dugdale R.C. and Menzel D. 1966. Estimates of in situ rates of nitrogen uptake by Trichodesmium sp. in the tropical Atlantic Ocean. Limnol. Oceanogr. 11: 614–620.

    Google Scholar 

  • Goodale C.L., Lajtha K., Nadelhoffer K.J., Boyer E.A. and Jaworski N.A. 2002. Forest nitrogen sinks in large eastern US watersheds: estimates from forest inventory and an ecosystem model. Biogeochemistry 57/58: 239–266.

    Google Scholar 

  • Goolsby D.A., Battaglin W.A., Lawrence G.B., Artz R.S., Aulenbach B.T., Hooper R.P., Keeney D.R. and Stensland G.J. 1999. Flux and sources of nutrients in the Mississippi-Atchafalaya River Basin; Topic 3. Report for the Integrated Assessment on Hypoxia in the Gulf of Mexico. NOAA Coastal Ocean Program Decision Analysis Series No. 17. NOAA, Silver Spring, MD.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gorham E., Vitousek P.M. and Reiners W.A. 1979. The regulation of chemical budgets over the course of terrestrial ecosystem succession. Ann. Rev. Ecol. Syst. 10: 53–84.

    Google Scholar 

  • Green P.A., Vörösmarty C.J., Meybeck M., Galloway J.N., Peterson B.J. and Boyer E.W. 2004. Pre-industrial and contemporary fluxes of nitrogen through rivers: a global assessment based on typology. Biogeochemistry 68(1): 71–105.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gruber N. 2004. The dynamics of the marine nitrogen cycle and its influence on atmospheric CO2 variation. In: Follows M. and Oguz T. (eds), Carbon Climate Interactions. J. Wiley, Hoboken, NJ, in press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gruber N. and Sarmiento J.1997. Global patterns of marine nitrogen fixation and denitrification. Global Biogeochem. Cycles 11: 235–266.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gundersen K., Corbin J., Hanson C., Hanson M., Hanson R., Russell D., Stollar A. and Yamada O. 1976. Structure and biological dynamics of the oligotrophic ocean photic zone off the Hawaiian Islands. Pacific Sci. 30: 45–68.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gundersen P. 1991. Nitrogen deposition and the forest nitrogen cycle: role of denitrification. For. Ecol. Manage. 44: 15–28.

    Google Scholar 

  • Haines J.R., Atlas R.M., Griffiths R.P. and Morita R.Y. 1981. Denitrification and nitrogen-fixation in Alaskan continental–shelf sediments. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 41: 412–421.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hansell D., Bates N. and Olson D. 2004. Excess nitrate and nitrogen fixation in the North Atlantic Ocean. Mar. Chem. 84: 243–265.

    Google Scholar 

  • Haug G., Pedersen T., Sigman D., Calvert S., Nielsen B. and Peterson L. 1998. Glacial/interglacial variations in production and nitrogen fixation in the Cariaco Basin during the last 580K years. Paleoceanography 13: 427–3432.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hedges J.I. and Keil R.G. 1995. Sedimentary organic matter preservation: an assessment and speculative synthesis. Mar. Chem. 49: 81–115.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hedin L.O., Armesto J.J. and Johnson A.H. 1995. Patterns of nutrient loss from unpolluted, old-growth temperate forests: evaluation of biogeochemical theory. Ecology 76: 493–509.

    Google Scholar 

  • Holland E.A., Braswell B.H., Lamarque J.F., Townsend A., Sulzman J.F., Müller J.-F., Dentener F., Brasseur G., Levy H. II, Penner J.E. and Roelofs G.J. 1997. Variations in the predicted spatial distribution of atmospheric nitrogen deposition and their impact on carbon uptake by terrestrial ecosystems. J. Geophys. Res. 102: 15849–15866.

    Google Scholar 

  • Holland E.A., Dentener F.J., Brasswell B.H. and Sulzman J.M. 1999. Contemporary and pre-industrial global reactive nitrogen budgets. Biogeochemistry 46: 7–43.

    Google Scholar 

  • Houghton R.A. and Hackler J.L. 2002. Carbon flux to the atmosphere from land-use changes. In: Trends: A Compendium of Data on Global Change. Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, US Department of Energy, Oak Ridge, TN.

    Google Scholar 

  • Howarth R.W. 1998. An assessment of human influences on fluxes of nitrogen from the terrestrial landscape to the estuaries and continental shelves of the North Atlantic Ocean. Nutr. Cycl. Agroecosyst. 52: 213–223.

    Google Scholar 

  • Howarth R.W., Marino R., Lane J. and Cole J.J. 1988. Nitrogen fixation in freshwater, estuarine, and marine ecosystems. 2. Biogeochemical controls. Limnol. Oceanogr. 33: 688–701.

    Google Scholar 

  • Howarth R.W., Billen G, Swaney D., Townsend A., Jaworksi N., Lajtha K., Downing J.A., Elmgren R., Caraco N., Jordan T., Berendse F., Freney J., Kudeyarov V., Murdoch P. and Zhu Zhao-Liang 1996. Regional nitrogen budgets and riverine N and P fluxes for the drainages to the North Atlantic Ocean: Natural and human influences. Biogeochemistry 35: 75–139.

    Google Scholar 

  • Howarth R.W., Boyer E., Pabich W. and Galloway J.N. 2002. Nitrogen use in the United States from 1961–2000, and estimates of potential future trends. Ambio 31: 88–96.

    Google Scholar 

  • Humphreys E., Freney J.R., Constable G.A., Smith J.W.B., Lilley D. and Rochester I.J. 1990. The fate of your N fertilizer. In Porch. 5th Aust. Cotton Conf., pp. 161–164.

  • IMAGE 2001. The IMAGE 2.2 implementation of the SRES scenarios. A comprehensive analysis of emissions, climate change and impacts in the 21st Century. CD-ROM publication 481508018. National Institute for Public Health and the Environment, Bilthoven, The Netherlands.

    Google Scholar 

  • IPCC 1996. Climate change 1995: the science of climate change. In: Houghton J.T., Meira Filho L.G., Callander B.A., Harris N., Kattenberg A. and Maskell K. (eds), Second Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge University Press, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • IPCC 2001. Climate change 2001: the scientific basis. In: Houghton J.T., Griggs D.J., Noguer M., van der Linden P.J., Dai X., Maskell K. and Johnson C.A. (eds), Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge University Press, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Joos F., Plattner G.K., Stocker T.F., Marchal O. and Schmittner A. 1999. Global warming and marine carbon cycle feedbacks and future atmospheric CO2. Science 284: 464–467.

    Google Scholar 

  • Johnson H.B. and Mayeux H.S. 1990. Prosopis glandulosa and the nitrogen balance of rangelands: extent and occurrence of nodulation. Oecologia 84: 176–185.

    Google Scholar 

  • Karl D.M. 1999. A sea of change:biogeochemical variability in the North Pacific subtropical gyre. Ecosystems 2: 181–214.

    Google Scholar 

  • Karl D.M. 2002. Nutrient dynamics in the deep blue sea. Trends Microbiol. 10: 410–418.

    Google Scholar 

  • Karl D.M., Letelier R., Hebel D.V., Bird D.F. and Winn C.D. 1992. Trichodesmium blooms and new nitrogen in the north Pacific gyre. In: Carpenter E.J., Capone D.G. and Rueter J.G. (eds), Marine Pelagic Cyanobacteria: Trichodesmium and Other Diazotrophs. Kluwer, New York, pp. 219–237.

    Google Scholar 

  • Karl D., Letelier R., Tupas L., Dore J., Christian J. and Hebel D. 1997. The role of nitrogen xation in biogeochemical cycling in the subtropical north Pacific ocean. Nature 386: 533–538.

    Google Scholar 

  • Karl D., Michaels A., Bergman B., Capone D., Carpenter E., Leetelier R., Lipschultz F., Paerl H., Sigman D. and Stal L. 2002. Dinitrogen fixation in the world's oceans. Biogeochemistry 57/58: 47–98.

    Google Scholar 

  • Keerthisinghe D.G., Freney J.R. and Mosier A.R. 1993. Effect of wax-coated calcium carbide and nitrapyrin on nitrogen loss and methane emission from dry-seeded flooded rice. Biol. Fertil. Soils 16: 71–75.

    Google Scholar 

  • Khalil M.A. and Rasmussen R.A. 1982. The global sources of nitrous oxide. J. Geophys. Res. 97: 14651–14660.

    Google Scholar 

  • Klein Goldewijk C.G.M. and Battjes J.J. 1997. A hundred year (1890–1990) database for integrated environmental assessments (HYDE, version 1.1) Rept. 422514002, Natl. Ist. of Pub. Health and the Environment. Bilthoven, Netherlands.

    Google Scholar 

  • Koike I. and Hattori A. 1979. Estimates of dentirification in sediments of the Bering Sea shelf. Deep Sea Res. 26(4): 409–415.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kossinna E. 1921. Die Tiefen des Weltmeeres. Inst. Meersekunde, Veroff., Geogr.-naturwiss, 70 pp.

  • Kramer D.A. 1999. Minerals Yearbook. Nitrogen. US Geological Survey Minerals Information. http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/nitrogen/.

  • Kroeze C. and Seitzinger S.P. 1998. Nitrogen inputs to rivers, estuaries and continental shelves and related nitrous oxide emissions in 1990 and 2050: a global model. Nutr. Cycl. Agroecosyst. 52: 195–212.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kroeze C., Mosier A. and Bouwman L. 1999. Closing the global N2O budget: a retrospective analysis 1500–1994. Global Biogeochem. Cycles 13: 1–8.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kroeze C., Aerts R., Van Breemen N., van Dam D., van der Hoek K., Hofschreuder P., Hoosbeek M., de Klein J., Kros H., van Oene H., Oenema O., Tietema A., van der Veeren R. and de Vries W. 2003. Uncertainties in the fate of nitrogen. I: an overview of sources of uncertainty illustrated with a Dutch case study. Nutr. Cycl. Agroecosyst. 66(1): 43–69.

    Google Scholar 

  • Laursen A.E. and Seitzinger S.P. 2002. Measurement of denitrification in rivers: an integrated, whole reach approach. Hydrobiologia 485: 67–81.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lee K., Karl D.M., Wannikhof R. and Zhang J.-Z. 2002. Global estimate of net carbon production in the nitrate-depleted tropical and sub-tropical ocean. S. Geophys. Res. Lett. 29(19): Art. No. 1907.

  • Lelieveld J. and Dentener F. 2000. What controls tropospheric ozone? J. Geophys. Res. 105: 3531–3551.

    Google Scholar 

  • Letelier R.M. and Karl D.M. 1996. Role of Trichodesmium spp. in the productivity of the sub-tropical north Pacific ocean. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 133: 263–273.

    Google Scholar 

  • Letelier R.M. and Karl K.M. 1998. Trichodesmium spp. physiology and nutrient fluxes in the North Pacific subtropical gyre. Aquat. Microbiol. Ecol. 15: 265–276.

    Google Scholar 

  • Levitus S., Antonov J.I., Boyer T.P. and Stephens C. 2000. Warming of the world ocean. Science 287(5461): 2225–2229.

    Google Scholar 

  • Li C., Zhuang Y.H., Frolking S., Galloway J., Harriss R., Moore B. III, Schimel D. and Wang X.K. 2003. Modeling soil organic carbon change in croplands in China. Ecol. Appl. 13(2): 327–336.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mackenzie F.T. 1994. Global climatic change: climatically important biogenic gases and feedbacks. In: Woodwell G. M. and Mackenzie F.T. (eds), Biotic Feedbacks in the Global Climatic System: Will the Warming Feed the Warming. Oxford University Press, UK, pp. 22–46.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mackenzie F.T. 1998. Our Changing Planet: An Introduction to Earth System Science and Global Environmental Change, 2nd ed). Prentice-Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ.

    Google Scholar 

  • Martinelli L.A., Piccolo M.C., Townsend A.R., Vitousek P.M., Cuevas E., McDowell W., Robertson G.P., Santos O.C. and Treseder K. 1999. Nitrogen stable isotopic composition of leaves and soil: tropical versus temperate forests. Biogeochemistry 46: 45–65.

    Google Scholar 

  • Matson P.A., McDowell W.H., Townsend A.R. and Vitousek P.M. 1999. The globalization of N deposition: ecosystem consequences in tropical environments. Biogeochemistry 46: 67–83.

    Google Scholar 

  • Matson P., Lohse K. and Hall S. 2002. The globalization of nitrogen: consequences for terrestrial ecosystems. Ambio 31: 113–119.

    Google Scholar 

  • Melillo J.M. and Cowling E.B. 2002. Reactive nitrogen and public policies for environmental protection. Ambio 31: 150–158.

    Google Scholar 

  • Menard H. and Smith S. 1966. Hypsometry of ocean basin provinces. J. Geophys. Res. 71: 4305–4325.

    Google Scholar 

  • Metz B., Davidson O., Swart R. and Pan J. 2001. Climate change 2001: mitigation. In: Metz B. et al. (eds), Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge University Press, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Michaels A.F., Olson D., Sarmiento J.L., Ammerman J.W., Fanning K., Jahnke R., Knap A.H., Lipschultz F. and Prospero J.M. 1996. Inputs, losses and transformations of nitrogen and phosphorus in the pelagic North Atlantic Ocean. Biogeochemistry 35: 181–226.

    Google Scholar 

  • Michaels A., Karl D. and Capone D. 2001. Element stoichiometry, new production and nitrogen fixation. Oceanography 14: 68–77.

    Google Scholar 

  • Middleburg J., Soetaert K., Herman P. and Heip C. 1996. Denitrification in marine sediments: a model study. Global Biogeochem. Cycles 10: 661–673.

    Google Scholar 

  • Moomaw W.R. 2002. Energy, industry and nitrogen: strategies for reducing reactive nitrogen emissions. Ambio 31: 184–189.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mosier A.R., Guenzi W.D. and Schweizer E.E. 1986. Soil losses of dinitrogen and nitrous oxide from irrigated crops in Northeastern Colorado. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 50: 344–348.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mosier A.R., Bleken M.A., Chaiwanakupt P., Ellis E.C., Freney J.R., Howarth R.B., Matson P.A., Minami K., Naylor R., Weeks K. and Zhu Z.-L. 2001. Policy implications of human accelerated nitrogen cycling. Biogeochemistry 52: 281–320.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mosier A.R., Doran J.W. and Freney J.R. 2002. Managing soil denitrification. J. Soil Water Conserv. 57: 505–513.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nadelhoffer K.J. 2001. The impacts of nitrogen deposition on forest ecosystems. In: Follett R.F. and Hatfield J.L. (eds), Nitrogen in the Environment: Sources, Problems and Management. Elsevier, New York, pp.311–331.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nadelhoffer K.J., Aber J.D., Downs M.R., Fry B. and Melillo J.M. 1992. Biological sinks for nitrogen additions to a forested catchment. EPA/600/A-92/292.

  • Nadelhoffer K.J., Downs M.R., Fry B., Aber J.D., Magill A.H. and Melillo J.M. 1995. The fate of 15N-labeled nitrate additions to a northern hardwood forest in eastern Maine, USA. Oecologia 103: 292–301.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nadelhoffer K.J., Downs M.R. and Fry B. 1999. Sinks for 15N-enriched additions to an oak forest and a red pine plantation. Ecol. Appl. 9: 72–86.

    Google Scholar 

  • Naqvi S.W.A., Noronha R.J., Shailaja M.S., Somasundar K. and Sen Gupta R. 1992. Some aspects of the nitrogen cycle in the Arabian Sea. In: Desai B.N. (ed.), Conference Papers: Oceanography of the Indian Ocean, International Symposium, Jan. 14–16 1991. National Institute of Oceanography, Goa (India), Oxford and IBH, New Delhi, pp.285–322.

    Google Scholar 

  • Naqvi S., Jayakumar D., Narvekar P., Naik H., Sarma V., D'Souza W., Joseph S. and George M. 2000. Increased marine production of N2O due to intensifying anoxia on the Indian continental shelf. Nature 408: 346–349.

    Google Scholar 

  • NRC (National Research Council) 2000. Clean Coastal Waters: Understanding and Reducing the Effects of Nutrient Pollution. National Academy Press, Washington, DC.

    Google Scholar 

  • Neff J.C., Holland E.A., Dentener F.J., McDowell W.H. and Russell K.M. 2002. The origin, composition and rates of organic nitrogen deposition. Biogeochemistry 57/58: 99–136.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nevison C., Weiss R. and Erikson D. 1995. Global oceanic emissions of nitrous oxide. J. Geophys. Res. 100: 15809–15820.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nixon S.W., Ammerman J.W., Atkinson P., Berounsky V.M., Billen G., Boicourt W.C., Boynton W.R., Church T.M., Ditoro D.M., Elmgren R., Garber J.H., Giblin A.E., Jahnke R.A., Owens N.J.P., Pilson M.E.Q. and Seitzinger S.P. 1996. The fate of nitrogen and phosphorus at the land-sea margin of the North Atlantic Ocean. Biogeochemistry 35: 141–180.

    Google Scholar 

  • Oenema O. and Pietrzak S. 2002. Nutrient management in food production: achieving agronomic and environmental targets. Ambio 31: 159–168.

    Google Scholar 

  • Orcutt K.M. et al. 2001. A seasonal study of the significance of N2 fixation by Trichodesmium spp. at the Bermuda Atlantic Time-series Study (BATS) site. Deep-Sea Res. II 48: 1583–1608.

    Google Scholar 

  • Paerl H.W. 1993. Emerging role of atmospheric nitrogen deposition in coastal eutrophication: biogeochemical and trophic perspectives. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 50: 2254–2269.

    Google Scholar 

  • Paul E.A. and Clark F.E. 1997. Soil Microbiology and Biochemistry. Academic Press, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Peoples M.B., Herridge D.F. and Ladha J.K. 1995. Biological nitrogen fixation: an efficient source of nitrogen for sustainable agricultural production? Plant Soil 174: 3–28.

    Google Scholar 

  • Peterjohn W.T. and Schlesinger W.H. 1991. Factors controlling denitrification in a Chihuahuan Desert ecosystem. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 55: 1694–1701.

    Google Scholar 

  • Prather M., Ehalt D., Dentener F., Derwent R., Dlugokencky E., Holland E., Isaksen I., Katima J., Kirchho. V., Matson P., Midgley P. and Wang M. 2001. Atmospheric chemistry and greenhouse gases. In: Houghton J.T., Ding Y., Griggs D.J., Noguer M., van der Linden P.J., Dai X., Maskell K. and Johnson C.A. (eds), Climate change 2001: the scientific basis. Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, NY.

    Google Scholar 

  • Preston C.M. and Mead D.J. 1994. Growth response and recover of 15N-fertilizer one and eight growing seasons after application to lodgepole pine in British Columbia. For. Ecol. Manage. 65: 219–229.

    Google Scholar 

  • Prospero J.M., Barrett K., Church T., Dentener F., Duce R.A., Galloway J.N., Levy H., Moody J. and Quinn P. 1996. Atmospheric deposition of nutrients to the North Atlantic Basin. Biogeochemistry 35: 27–73.

    Google Scholar 

  • Quinn P.K., Barrett K.J., Dentener F.J., Lipschultzt F and Six K.D. 1996. Estimation of the air/sea exchange of ammonia for the North Atlantic basin. Biogeochemistry 35: 275–304.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rabalais N. 2002. Nitrogen in aquatic ecosystems. Ambio 31: 102–112.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rasmussen L., Beier C., Van Breemen N., De Visser P., Kreutzer K., Schierl R., Matzner E. and Farrel E.P. 1990. Study on Acid Deposition Effects by Manipulating Forest Ecosystems, New Title: EXMAN—EXperimental MANipulation of Forest Ecosystems in Europe. Air Pollution Research Report 24, Commission of the European Communities, Brussels.

    Google Scholar 

  • Redfield A.C. 1958. The biological control of chemical factors in the environment. Am. Sci. 46: 205–221.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ridgwell A.J., Maslin M.A. and Watson A.J. 2002. Reduced effectiveness of terrestrial carbon sequestration due to an antagonistic response of ocean productivity. Geophys. Res. Lett. 29(6): Art. No. 1095.

    Google Scholar 

  • Robertson L.A., Dalsgaard T., Revsbech N.-P. and Kuenen J.G. 1995. Confirmation of 'aerobic denitrification 'in batch cultures, using gas chromatography and 15N mass spectrometry. FEMS Microbiol. Ecol. 18: 113–120.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rolston D.E., Hoffman D.L. and Toy D.W. 1978. Field measurement of denitrification: I. Flux of N2 and N2O. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 42: 863–869.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rolston D.E., Sharpley A.M., Toy D.W. and Broadbent F.E. 1982. Field measurement of denitrification: III. Rates during irrigation cycles. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 46: 289–296.

    Google Scholar 

  • Roy R.N., Misra R.V. and Montanez A. 2002. Reduced reliance on mineral nitrogen, yet more food. Ambio 31: 177–183.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sachs J.P. and Repeta D.J. 1999. Oligotrophy and nitrogen fixation during eastern Mediterranian sapropel events. Science 286: 2485–2488.

    Google Scholar 

  • Saino T. 1977. Biological nitrogen fixation in the ocean with emphasis on the nitrogen fixing blue green alga, Trichodesmium, and its significance in the nitrogen cycle in the low latitude sea areas. Ph.D. Dissertation, Tokyo University, Japan.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sañudo-Wilhelmy S.A., Kustka A.D., Gobler C.J., Hutchins D.A., Yang M., Lwiza K., Burns J., Capone D.G., Raven J.A. and Carpenter E.J. 2001. Phosphorus limitation of nitrogen fixation by Trichodesmium in the central Atlantic Ocean. Nature 411: 66–69.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sarmiento J.L., Hughes T.M.C., Stouffer R.J. and Manabe S. 1998. Simulated response of the ocean carbon cycle to anthropogenic climate warming. Nature 393: 245–249.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schlesinger W.H. 1991. Biogeochemistry: An Analysis of Global Change. Academic Press, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schlesinger W.H. and Andrews J.A. 2000. Soil respiration and the global carbon cycle. Biogeochemistry 48: 7–20.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schlesinger W.H. and Hartley A.E. 1992. A global budget for atmospheric ammonia. Biogeochemistry 15: 191–211.

    Google Scholar 

  • Seely B. and Lajtha K. 1997. Application of a 15N tracer to simulate and track the fate of atmospherically deposited N in the coastal forests of the Waquoit Bay Watershed, Cape Cod, Massachusetts. Oecologia 112: 393–402.

    Google Scholar 

  • Seitzinger S.P. 1988. Denitrification in freshwater and coastal marine ecosystems: ecological and geochemical importance. Limnol. Oceanogr. 33: 702–724.

    Google Scholar 

  • Seitzinger S.P. and Giblin A.E. 1996. Estimating denitrification in North Atlantic continental shelf sediments. Biogeochemistry 35: 235–260.

    Google Scholar 

  • Seitzinger S.P. and Kroeze C. 1998. Global distribution of nitrous oxide production and N inputs in freshwater and coastal marine ecosystems. Global Biogeochem. Cycles 12: 93–113.

    Google Scholar 

  • Seitzinger S.P., Kroeze C. and Styles R.V. 2000. Global distribution of N2O emissions from aquatic systems: natural emissions and anthropogenic effects. Chemosphere: Global Change Sci. 2: 267–279.

    Google Scholar 

  • Seitzinger S.P., Styles R.V., Boyer E., Alexander R.B., Billen G., Howarth R., Mayer B. and Van Breemen N. 2002. Nitrogen retention in rivers: model development and application to water-sheds in the eastern US. Biogeochemistry 57/58: 199–237.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shaffer G. and Ronner U. 1984. Denitrification in the Baltic Proper deep-water. Deep-Sea Res. A 31: 197–220.

    Google Scholar 

  • Simpson J.R. and Freney J.R. 1988. Interacting processes in gaseous nitrogen loss from urea applied to flooded rice fields. In: Pushparajah E., Husin A. and Bachik A.T. (eds), Conference papers, Urea Technology and Utilization International Symposium. Malaysian Society of Soil Science, Kuala Lumpur, pp.281–290.

    Google Scholar 

  • Simpson J.R., Freney J.R., Wetselaar R., Muirhead W.A., Leuning R. and Denmead O.T. 1984. Transformations and losses of urea nitrogen after application to flooded rice. Aust. J. Agric. Res. 35: 189–200.

    Google Scholar 

  • Smil V. 1994. Energy in World History. Westview Press, Boulder, CO.

    Google Scholar 

  • Smil V. 1995. Who will feed China? The China Quart. 143: 801–813.

    Google Scholar 

  • Smil V. 1999. Nitrogen in crop production: an account of global flows. Global Biogeochem. Cycles 13: 647–662.

    Google Scholar 

  • Smil V. 2000. Feeding the World: A Challenge for the Twenty-First Century. MIT Press, Cambridge, MA.

    Google Scholar 

  • Smil V. 2001. Enriching the Earth. MIT Press, Cambridge, MA.

    Google Scholar 

  • Smil V. 2002. Nitrogen and Food. Ambio 31: 126–131.

    Google Scholar 

  • Smith B.D. 1995. The Emergence of Agriculture. Scientific American Library Series No. 24, Scientific American Library, (distributed by W.H. Freeman), New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Socolow R.H. 1999. Nitrogen management and the future of food: lessons from the management of energy and carbon. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 96: 6001–6008.

    Google Scholar 

  • Söderland R. and Rosswall T. 1982. The nitrogen cycles. In: Hutzinger O. (ed.), The Natural Environment and Biogeochemical Cycles. Springer Verlag, New York, pp.61–81.

    Google Scholar 

  • Somasundar K., Rajendran A., Dileep Kumar M. and Sen Gupta R. 1990. Carbon and nitrogen budgets of the Arabian Sea. Mar. Chem. 30: 363–377.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stedman D.H. and Shetter R. 1983. The global budget of atmospheric nitrogen species. In: Schwartz S.S. (ed.), Trace Atmospheric Constituents: Properties, Transformations and Fates. J. Wiley, Hoboken, NJ, pp. 411–454.

    Google Scholar 

  • Steinhart G.S., Likens G.E. and Groffman P.M. 2000. Denitrification in stream sediments of five northeastern (USA) streams. Verh. Internat.Verein. Limnol. 27: 1331–1336.

    Google Scholar 

  • Suthhof A., Ittekkot V. and Gaye-Haake B. 2001. Millennial-scale oscillation of denitrification intensity in the Arabian Sea during the late Quaternary and its potential influence on atmospheric N2O and global climate. Global Biogeochem. Cycles 15: 637–649.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sverdrup H., Johnson M. and Fleming R. 1942. The Oceans. Prentice-Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tartowski S. and Howarth R.W. 2000. Nitrogen, nitrogen cycling. Encycl. Biodiv. 4: 377–388.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thamdrup B. and Dalsgaard T. 2002. Production of N2 through anaerobic ammonium oxidation coupled to nitrate reduction in marine sediments. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 68: 1312–1318.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tilman D., Fargione J., Wol. B., D'Antonio C., Dobson A., Howarth R., Schindler D., Schlesinger W.H., Simberloff D. and Swackhamer D. 2001. Forecasting agriculturally driven global change. Science 292: 281–284.

    Google Scholar 

  • Townsend A.R., Howarth R.H., Bazzaz F.A., Booth M.S., Cleveland C.C., Collinge S.K., Dobson A.P., Epstein P.R., Holland E.A., Keeney D.R., Mallin M.A., Rogers C.A., Wayne P. and Wolfe A.H. 2003. Human health effects of a changing global nitrogen cycle. Front Ecol. Environ. 1: 240–246.

    Google Scholar 

  • van Aardenne J.A., Dentener F.J., Olivier J.G.J., Klijn Goldewijk C.G.M. and Lelieveld J. 2001. A 1°-1° resolution dataset of historical anthropogenic trace gas emissions for the period 1890–1990. Global Biogeochem. Cycles 15: 909–928.

    Google Scholar 

  • Van Breemen N., Boyer E.W., Goodale C.L., Jaworski N.A., Paustian K., Seitzinger S., Lajtha L.K., Mayer B., Van Dam D., Howarth R.W., Nadelhoffer K.J., Eve M. and Billen G. 2002. Where did all the nitrogen go? Fate of nitrogen inputs to large watersheds in the northeastern USA Biogeochemistry 57/58: 267–293.

    Google Scholar 

  • Van Drecht G., Bouwman A.F., Knoop J.M., Meinardi C. and Beusen A. 2001. Global pollution of surface waters from point and nonpoint sources of nitrogen. Sci. World 1(S2): 632–641.

    Google Scholar 

  • van Egmond N.D., Bresser A.H.M. and Bouwman A.F. 2002. The European nitrogen case. Ambio 31: 72–78.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vitousek P.M. 1994. Potential nitrogen fixation during primary succession in Hawaii Volcanoes National Park. Biotropica 26: 234–240.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vitousek P.M., Howarth R.W., Likens G.E., Matson P.A., Schindler D., Schlesinger W.H. and Tilman G.D. 1997. Human alteration of the global nitrogen cycle: causes and consequences. Issue Ecol. 1: 1–17.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vitousek P.M., Hattenschwiler S., Olander L. and Allison S. 2002. Nitrogen and nature. Ambio 31: 97–101.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vörösmarty C.J., Fekete B.M., Meybeck M. and Lammers R.B. 2000. Geomorphometeric attributes of the global system of rivers at 30-minute spatial resolution. J. Hydrol. 237: 17–39.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wang L. 1987. Soybeans–The miracle bean of China. In: Wittwer S., Yu Y., Sun H. and Wang L. (eds), Feeding a Billion: Frontiers of Chinese Agriculture. Michigan State University Press, East Lansing.

    Google Scholar 

  • Whelpdale D.M., Dorling S.R., Hicks B.B. and Summers P.W. 1996. Atmospheric processes. In: Whelpdale D.M. and Kaiser M.S. (eds), Global Acid Deposition Assessment. WMO GAW Rept. No. 106, Geneva.

  • Whelpdale D.M., Summers P.W. and Sanhueza E. 1997. A global overview of atmospheric acid deposition flues. Environ. Monit. Assess. 48: 217–227.

    Google Scholar 

  • Williams M.W., Baron J.S., Caine N., Sommerfeld R. and Sanford R. 1996. Nitrogen saturation in the Rocky Mountains. Environ. Sci. Technol. 30: 640–646.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wilson T. 1978. Evidence for denitrification in aerobic pelagic sediments. Nature 274: 354–356.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wittwer S., Yu Y., Sun H. and Wang L. 1987. Feeding a Billion: Frontiers of Chinese Agriculture. Michigan State University Press, East Lansing.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wolfe A. and Patz J.A. 2002. Nitrogen and human health: direct and indirect impacts. Ambio 31: 120–125.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wright R.F. and Rasmussen L. 1998. Introduction to N. I. TREX and EXMAN projects. For. Ecol. Manage. 101: 1–7.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wu J., Sunda W., Boyle E. and Karl D. 2000. Phosphate depletion in the western North Atlantic Ocean. Science 289: 759–762.

    Google Scholar 

  • Xing G.X. and Zhu Z.L. 2002. Regional nitrogen budgets for China and its major watersheds. Biogeochemistry 57–58: 405–427.

    Google Scholar 

  • Yavitt J.B. and Fahey T.J. 1993. Production of methane and nitrous oxide by organic soils within a northern hardwood forest ecosystem. In: Oremland R.S. (ed.), Biogeochemistry of Global Change. Chapman and Hall, New York, pp. 261–277.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zehr J.P., Carpenter E.J. and Villareal T.A. 2000. New perspectives on nitrogen-fixing microorganisms in subtropical and tropical open oceans. Trends Microbiol. 8: 68–73.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zehr J. and Ward B.B. 2002. Nitrogen cycling in the ocean. New perspective on processes and paradigms. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 68: 1015–1024.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zehr J., Waterbury J., Turner P., Montoya J., Omoregie E., Steward G., Hansen A. and Karl D. 2001. Unicellular cyanobacteria fix N2 in the subtropical North Pacific Ocean. Nature 412: 635–638.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zhang W.L., Tian Z.X., Zhang N. and Li X.Q. 1996. Nitrate pollution of groundwaters in northern China. Agric. Ecosyst. Environ. 59: 223–231.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zheng X., Fu C., Xu X., Yan X., Chen G., Han S., Huang Y. and Hu F. 2002. The Asian nitrogen case. Ambio 31: 79–87.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zhu Z.L., Cai G.X., Simpson J.R., Zhang S.L., Chen D.L., Jackson A.V. and Freney J.R. 1989. Processes of nitrogen loss from fertilizers applied to. flooded rice fields on a calcareous soil in North-Central China. Fert. Res. 18: 101–115.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zobell C. and Anderson D.Q. 1943. Observations on the multiplication of bacteria in different volumes of stored sea water and the influence of oxygen tension and solid surfaces. J. Bacteriol. 46: 324–342.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Environmental Sciences Department, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, 22903, USA

    J. N. Galloway

  2. Joint Research Centre, Institute for Environment and Sustainability Climate Change Unit, Ispra, Italy

    F. J. Dentener & A. F. Michaels

  3. Wrigley Institute for Environmental Studies, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California, USA

    D. G. Capone & J. H. Porter

  4. College of Environmental Science and Forestry, State University of New York, Syracuse, New York, USA

    E. W. Boyer & A. R. Townsend

  5. Department of Ecology & Evolutionary Biology, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, USA

    R. W. Howarth & C. J. Vöosmarty

  6. Institute of Marine and Coastal Sciences, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, New Brunswick, New Jersey, USA

    S. P. Seitzinger

  7. Department of Global Ecology, Carnegie Institution, Stanford University, Stanford, California, USA

    G. P. Asner

  8. Institute of Arctic and Alpine Research, University of Colorado, Boulder, Colorado, USA

    C. C. Cleveland

  9. Complex Systems Research Center, Institute for the Study of Earth, Oceans, and Space, University of New Hampshire, Durham, New Hampshire, USA

    P. A. Green

  10. Atmospheric Chemistry Division, National Center for Atmospheric Research, Boulder, Colorado, USA

    E. A. Holland

  11. Environmental Sciences Department, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, 22903, USA

    D. M. Karl, A. F. Michaels, J. H. Porter, A. R. Townsend & C. J. Vöosmarty

Authors
  1. J. N. Galloway
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. F. J. Dentener
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. D. G. Capone
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. E. W. Boyer
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. R. W. Howarth
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  6. S. P. Seitzinger
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  7. G. P. Asner
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  8. C. C. Cleveland
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  9. P. A. Green
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  10. E. A. Holland
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  11. D. M. Karl
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  12. A. F. Michaels
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  13. J. H. Porter
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  14. A. R. Townsend
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  15. C. J. Vöosmarty
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Galloway, J.N., Dentener, F.J., Capone, D.G. et al. Nitrogen Cycles: Past, Present, and Future. Biogeochemistry 70, 153–226 (2004). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10533-004-0370-0

Download citation

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10533-004-0370-0

Search

Navigation