Abstract
The lowland dipterocarp forests of Southeast Asia support a substantial proportion of the world’s biodiversity. They are of considerable environmental and economic value at the local, regional and global scale, providing many goods and services to a growing population. The forests of this region are among the fastest disappearing in the world and restoration is urgently required. This paper provides a review of the ecological constraints to restoration of lowland dipterocarp forest in Southeast Asia. It focuses on the production of planting stock, the significance of site-species matching and post-planting site maintenance. It identifies gaps in our knowledge and highlights priority areas of research. Adopting a long-term view is essential for restoring as well as conserving the dipterocarp forests of Southeast Asia. An immediate strategy for the conservation and management of dwindling genetic resources of these important timber species is essential. This will provide the foundations for sourcing seed and production of planting material for longer term restoration. The importance of species-site matching, mycorrhizal fungi and post-planting maintenance for restoration are apparent. Financing is a major limiting factor to dipterocarp forest restoration. Trading in carbon, private finance and environmental markets afford considerable opportunities for restoring these forests providing their total value is recognised. Despite the wealth of ecological knowledge we already have for scientifically-informed forest restoration, without the backing of governments and corporate stakeholders, forest restoration will not gain the urgently required momentum.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Adjers G, Otsamo A (1996) Seedling production methods of dipterocarps. In Schulte A, Schone D (eds) Dipterocarp forest ecosystems towards sustainable management. World Publishing Co. Pte. Ltd., Singapore, pp 391–410
Adjers G, Hadengganan S, Kuusipalo J, Nuryanto K, Vesa L (1995) Enrichment planting of dipterocarps in logged-over secondary forests—effect of width, direction and maintenance method of planting line on selected Shorea species. For Ecol Manag 73:259–270
Aguilar R, Ashworth L, Galetto L, Aizen MA (2006) Plant reproductive susceptibility to habitat fragmentation: review and synthesis through a meta-analysis. Ecol Lett 9:968–980
Ahmad DH (2006) Vegetative propagation of dipterocarp species by stem cuttings using a very simple technique. In: Suzuki K, Ishii K, Sakurai SSS (eds) Plantation technology in tropical forest science. Springer, Tokyo, pp 69–77
Alexander IJ, Lee SS (2005) Mycorrhizas and ecosystem processes in tropical rain forest: implications for diversity. In: Burslem DFRP, Pinard MA, Hartley SE (eds) In biotic interactions in the tropics. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp 165–203
Angelsen A, Brown S, Loisel C, Pwekett L, Streck C, Zarin D (2009) Reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation (REDD): an options assessment report
Appanah S (1998) Management of natural forests. In: Appanah S, Turnbull JM (eds) A review of dipterocarps taxonomy, ecology, silviculture. Centre for International Forestry Research, Bogor, pp 133–149
Ashton PS, Givnish TJ, Appanah S (1988) Staggered flowering in the Dipterocarpaceae—new insights into floral induction and the evolution of mast fruiting in the aseasonal tropics. Am Nat 132:44–66
Ashton MS, Singhakumara BMP, Gamage HK (2006) Interaction between light and drought affect performance of Asian tropical tree species that have differing topographic affinities. For Ecol Manag 221:42–51
Asner GP, Broadbent EN, Oliveira PJC, Keller M, Knapp DE, Silva JNM (2006) Condition and fate of logged forests in the Brazilian Amazon. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 103:12947–12950
Augspurger CK, Kelly CK (1984) Pathogen mortality of tropical tree seedlings—experimental studies of the effects of dispersal distance, seedling density, and light conditions. Oecologia 61:211–217
Barlow J, Gardner TA, Araujo IS, Avila-Pires TC, Bonaldo AB, Costa JE, Esposito MC, Ferreira LV, Hawes J, Hernandez MM, Hoogmoed MS, Leite RN, Lo-Man-Hung NF, Malcolm JR, Martins MB, Mestre LAM, Miranda-Santos R, Nunes-Gutjahr AL, Overal WL, Parry L, Peters SL, Ribeiro-Junior MA, da Silva MNF, Motta CD, Peres CA (2007) Quantifying the biodiversity value of tropical primary, secondary, and plantation forests. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 104:18555–18560
Bawa KS (1998) Conservation of genetic resources in the Dipterocarpaceae. In: Appanah S, Turnbull JM (eds) Review of the dipterocarps: taxonomy, ecology, silviculture. CIFOR, Bogor
Bebber D, Brown N, Speight M, Moura-Costa P, Wai YS (2002) Spatial structure of light and dipterocarp seedling growth in a tropical secondary forest. For Ecol Manag 157:65–75
Berry NJ, Phillips OL, Lewis SL, Hill JK, Edwards DP, Tawatao N, Ahmad N, Magintan D, Khen CV, Mohammed M, Ong R, Hamer K (2010) The value of logged tropical forests: lessons from northern Borneo. Biodivers Conserv (this issue)
Bradshaw CJA, Sodhi NS, Brook BW (2009) Tropical turmoil: a biodiversity tragedy in progress. Front Ecol Environ 7:79–87
Brearley FQ, Proctor J, Suriantata, Nagy L, Dalrymple G, Voysey BC (2007a) Reproductive phenology over a 10-year period in a lowland evergreen rain forest of central Borneo. J Ecol 95:828–839
Brearley FQ, Scholes JD, Press MC, Palfner G (2007b) How does light and phosphorus fertilisation affect the growth and ectomycorrhizal community of two contrasting dipterocarp species? Plant Ecol 192:237–249
Brockerhoff EG, Jactel H, Parrotta JA, Quine CP, Sayer J (2008) Plantation forests and biodiversity: oxymoron or opportunity? Biodivers Conserv 17:925–951
CBOL PWG (2009) A DNA barcode for land plants. PNAS 106:12794–12797
Coomes OT, Grimard F, Potvin C, Sima P (2008) The fate of the tropical forest: carbon or cattle? Ecol Econ 65:207–212
Curran LM, Webb CO (2000) Experimental tests of the spatiotemporal scale of seed predation in mast-fruiting Dipterocarpaceae. Ecol Monogr 70:129–148
Dalling JW, Burslem DFRP (2008) Anthropogenic disturbance in tropical forests: toward a functional understanding of seedling responses. In: Leck MA, Parker VT, Simpson RL (eds) Seedling ecology and evolution. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp 332–351
Davies SJ, Tan S, LaFrankie JV, Potts MD (2005) Soil-related floristic variation in a hyperdiverse dipterocarp forest. In: Roubik DW, Sakai S, Hamid Karim AA (eds) Pollination ecology and rain forest. Springer, New York
de Freitas JV, Pinard MA (2008) Applying ecological knowledge to decisions about seed tree retention in selective logging in tropical forests. For Ecol Manag 256:1434–1442
Dennis RA, Meijaard E, Nasi R, Gustafsson L (2008) Biodiversity conservation in Southeast Asian timber concessions: a critical evaluation of policy mechanisms and guidelines. Ecol Soc 13(1):25
Dent DH, Burslem D (2009) Performance trade-offs driven by morphological plasticity contribute to habitat specialization of Bornean tree species. Biotropica 41:424–434
Edwards DP, Ansell FA, Ahmad AH, Nilus R, Hamer KC (2009) The value of rehabilitating logged rainforest for birds. Conserv Biol 23:1628–1633
Erdmann TK (2005) Agroforestry as a tool for restoring forest landscapes. In: Mansourian S, Vallauri D, Dudley N (eds) Forest restoration in landscapes: beyond planting trees. Springer, New York, pp 274–279
FAO (2007) State of the worlds forests. Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations, Rome
Fukue Y, Kado T, Lee SL, Ng KKS, Muhammad N, Tsumura Y (2007) Effects of flowering tree density on the mating system and gene flow in Shorea leprosula (Dipterocarpaceae) in Peninsular Malaysia. J Plant Res 120:413–420
Garrity DP, Soekardi M, VanNoordwijk M, DelaCruz R, Pathak PS, Gunasena HPM, VanSo N, Huijun G, Majid NM (1997) The Imperata grasslands of tropical Asia: area, distribution, and typology. Agrofor Syst 36:3–29
Hedrick P (2005) ‘Genetic restoration’: a more comprehensive perspective than ‘genetic rescue’. Trends Ecol Evol 20:109
ITTO (1990) Annual review and assessment of the world timber situation. International Tropical Timber Organisation, Yokohama
ITTO (2008) Annual review and assessment of the worlds timber situation. International Tropical Timber Organisation, Yokohama
Kenta T, Shimizu KK, Nakagawa M, Okada K, Hamid AA, Nakashizuka T (2002) Multiple factors contribute to outcrossing in a tropical emergent Dipterocarpus tempehes, including a new pollen-tube guidance mechanism for self-incompatibility. Am J Bot 89:60–66
Kenta T, Isagi Y, Nakagawa M, Yamashita M, Nakashizuka T (2004) Variation in pollen dispersal between years with different pollination conditions in a tropical emergent tree. Mol Ecol 13:3575–3584
Kettle CJ, Ennos RA, Jaffre T, Gardner M, Hollingsworth PM (2008) Cryptic genetic bottlenecks during restoration of an endangered tropical conifer. Biol Conserv 141:1953–1961
Kettle CJ, Hollingsworth PM, Burslem DFRP, Maycock C, Khoo E, Ghazoul J (submitted-a) Fine-scale spatial genetic structure and genetic diversity in three dipterocarp tree species with contrasting flower size
Kettle CJ, Maycock C, Ghazoul J, Hollingsworth PM, Khoo E, Burslem DFRP (submitted-b) Flower size and differential pollination success in tropical forest trees
Koh LP (2007a) Impending disaster or sliver of hope for Southeast Asian forests? The devil may lie in the details. Biodivers Conserv 16:3935–3938
Koh LP (2007b) Potential habitat and biodiversity losses from intensified biodiesel feedstock production. Conserv Biol 21:1373–1375
Konuma A, Tsumura Y, Lee CT, Lee SL, Okuda T (2000) Estimation of gene flow in the tropical-rainforest tree Neobalanocarpus heimii (Dipterocarpaceae), inferred from paternity analysis. Mol Ecol 9:1843–1852
Lamb D, Erskine PD, Parrotta JA (2005) Restoration of degraded tropical forest landscapes. Science 310:1628–1632
Langner A, Siegert F (2009) Spatiotemporal fire occurrence in Borneo over a period of 10 years. Glob Chang Biol 15:48–62
Lawrence D (2004) Erosion of tree diversity during 200 years of shifting cultivation in Bornean rain forest. Ecol Appl 14:1855–1869
Lee SL (2000) Mating system parameters of Dryobalanops aromatica Gaertn. f. (Dipterocarpaceae) in three different forest types and a seed orchard. Heredity 85:338–345
Lee S-S (2006) Mycorrhizal research in Malaysian plantation forestry. In: Suzuki K, Ishii K, Sakurai S, Sasaki S (eds) Plantation technology in tropical forest science. Springer, Tokyo, pp 157–166
Lee SL, Ng KKS, Saw LG, Lee CT, Muhammad N, Tani N, Tsumura Y, Koskela J (2006) Linking the gaps between conservation research and conservation management of rare dipterocarps: a case study of Shorea lumutensis. Biol Conserv 131:72–92
Lee SS, Patahayah M, Chong WS, Lapeyrie F (2008) Successful ectomycorrhizal inoculation of two dipterocarp species with a locally isolated fungus in Peninsular Malaysia. J Trop For Sci 20:237–247
Matsune K, Soda R, Sunyoto, Tange T, Sasaki S, Suparno (2006) Planting techniques and growth of dipterocarps in abandoned secondary forest in East Kalimantan, Indonesia. In: Suzuki IKK, Sakurai S, Sasaki S (eds) Plantation technology in tropical forest science. Springer, Tokyo
Maycock CR, Thewlis RN, Ghazoul J, Nilus R, Burslem D (2005) Reproduction of dipterocarps during low intensity masting events in a Bornean rain forest. J Veg Sci 16:635–646
McNamara S, Tinh DV, Erskine PD, Lamb D, Yates D, Brown S (2005) Rehabilitating degraded forest land in central Vietnam with mixed native species plantings. In: Workshop on improving productivity in mixed-species plantations. Ballina, Australia, pp. 358–365
MDG (2009) Millenium Development Goals report, 2009. MDG, New York
Meijaard E, Sheil D (2007) A logged forest in Borneo is better than none at all. Nature 446:974–974
Morton DC, DeFries RS, Shimabukuro YE, Anderson LO, Arai E, Espirito-Santo FD, Freitas R, Morisette J (2006) Cropland expansion changes deforestation dynamics in the southern Brazilian Amazon. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 103:14637–14641
Moura-Costa P, Sau Wai Y, Chye Lye O, Ganing A (1994) Large scale enrichment planting with dipterocarps as an alternative for carbon offset—methods and preliminary results. In: Proceedings of the 5th round table conference on dipteocarps. J Trop For Sci, FRIM, Kuala Lumpur
Myers N, Mittermeier RA, Mittermeier CG, da Fonseca GAB, Kent J (2000) Biodiversity hotspots for conservation priorities. Nature 403:853–858
Ng KKS, Lee SL, Koh CL (2004) Spatial structure and genetic diversity of two tropical tree species with contrasting breeding systems and different ploidy levels. Mol Ecol 13:657–669
Ng KKS, Lee SL, Ueno S (2009) Impact of selective logging on genetic diversity of two tropical tree species with contrasting breeding systems using direct comparison and simulation methods. For Ecol Manag 257:107–116
Norisada M, Hitsuma G, Kuroda K, Yamanoshita T, Masumori M, Tange T, Yagi H, Nuyim T, Sasaki S, Kojima K (2005) Acacia mangium, a nurse tree candidate for reforestation on degraded sandy soils in the Malay Peninsula. For Sci 51:498–510
Nussbaum RHAL (1996) Rehabilitation of degraded sites in logged-over forest using dipterocarps. In: Schulte A, Shöne D (eds) Dipterocarp forest ecosystems: toward sustainable management. World Scientific, Singapore
Nussbaum R, Anderson J, Spencer T (1995) Factors limiting the growth of indigenous tree seedlings planted on degraded rainforest soils in Sabah, Malaysia. For Ecol Manag 74:149–159
Okuda T, Kachi N, Yap SK, Manokaran N (1997) Tree distribution pattern and fate of juveniles in a lowland tropical rain forest—implications for regeneration and maintenance of species diversity. Plant Ecol 131:155–171
Osunkoya OO, Othman FE, Kahar RS (2005) Growth and competition between seedlings of an invasive plantation tree, Acacia mangium, and those of a native Borneo heath-forest species, Nelastoma beccarianum. Ecol Res 20:205–214
Otsamo R (2000) Early development of three planted indigenous tree species and natural understorey vegetation in artificial gaps in an Acacia mangium stand on an Imperata cylindrica grassland site in South Kalimantan, Indonesia. New For 19:51–68
Paoli GD, Curran LM, Zak DR (2006) Soil nutrients and beta diversity in the Bornean Dipterocarpaceae: evidence for niche partitioning by tropical rain forest trees. J Ecol 94:157–170
Paquette A, Hawryshyn J, Senikas AV, Potvin C (2009) Enrichment planting in secondary forests: a promising clean development mechanism to increase terrestrial carbon sinks. Ecol Soc 14:15
Phat NK, Knorr W, Kim S (2004) Appropriate measures for conservation of terrestrial carbon stocks—analysis of trends of forest management in Southeast Asia. For Ecol Manag 191:283–299
Potts MD, Ashton PS, Kaufman LS, Plotkin JB (2002) Habitat patterns in tropical rain forests: a comparison of 105 plots in Northwest Borneo. Ecology 83:2782–2797
Romell E, Hallsby G, Karlsson A, Garcia C (2008) Artificial canopy gaps in a Macaranga spp. dominated secondary tropical rain forest—effects on survival and above ground increment of four under-planted dipterocarp species. For Ecol Manag 255:1452–1460
Romell E, Hallsby G, Karlsson A (2009) Forest floor light conditions in a secondary tropical rain forest: after artificial gap creation in northern Borneo. Agric For Meteorol 149:929–937
Russo SE, Brown P, Davies SJ (2008) Interspecific demographic trade-offs and soil-related habitat associations of tree species along resource gradients (vol 96, pg 192, 2008). J Ecol 96:1330–1330
Schuyt K (2005) Opportunities for long-term financing of forest restoration in landscapes. In: Mansourian S, Vallauri D, Dudley N (eds) Forest restoration in landscapes: beyond planting trees. Springer, New York, pp 161–165
Shono K, Davies SJ, Chua YK (2007) Performance of 45 native tree species on degraded lands in Singapore. J Trop For Sci 19:25–34
Sirikantaramas S, Sugioka N, Lee S-S, Ibrahim FH, Lee H-S, Szmidt A, Yamazaki T (2003) Molecular identification of ectomycorrhizal fungi associated with Dipterocarpaceae. Tropics 13:69–77
Sist P, Garcia-Fernandez C, Fredericksen TS (2008) Moving beyond reduced-impact logging towards a more holistic management of tropical forests. For Ecol Manag 256:VII–IX
Suzuki R, Numata S, Okuda T, Supardi MN, Kachi N (2009) Growth strategies differentiate the spatial patterns of 11 dipterocarp species coexisting in a Malaysian tropical rain forest. J Plant Res 122:81–93
UN-DESA (2009) Forests: the Green and REDD of Climate Change. In: UN-DESA Policy Brief No. 16. United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, New York
UNFCCC (2009) CDM registration. United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
van der Heijden MGA, Bardgett RD, van Straalen NM (2008) The unseen majority: soil microbes as drivers of plant diversity and productivity in terrestrial ecosystems. Ecol Lett 11:296–310
Weinland G (1998) Plantations. In: Appanah S, Turnbull JM (eds) Review of the dipterocarps: taxonomy, ecology and silviculture. CIFOR, Bogor, pp 151–185
Wilcove D, Koh LP (2010) Addressing the threats to biodiversity from oil palm agriculture. Biodivers Conserv (this issue)
WRI (2009) Earth trends: the environmental information portal. World Resource Institute, Washington, DC
Zhu YY, Chen HR, Fan JH, Wang YY, Li Y, Chen JB, Fan JX, Yang SS, Hu LP, Leung H, Mew TW, Teng PS, Wang ZH, Mundt CC (2000) Genetic diversity and disease control in rice. Nature 406:718–722
Acknowledgements
C.J.K. is supported by Swiss National Science Foundation and the Professorship of Ecosystem Management ETH Zurich. Many of the ideas from this paper were inspired by a Natural Environmental Research Council (NERC) UK grant to which C.J.K. was a PDRA. C.J.K. thanks David Burslem, Lian Pin Koh, Colin Maycock and Jaboury Ghazoul for discussions and comments on drafts of this paper.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Kettle, C.J. Ecological considerations for using dipterocarps for restoration of lowland rainforest in Southeast Asia. Biodivers Conserv 19, 1137–1151 (2010). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10531-009-9772-6
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10531-009-9772-6