Abstract
Although invasions by exotic plants have increased dramatically as human travel and commerce have increased, few have been comprehensively described. Understanding the patterns of invasive species’ spread over space and time will help guide management activities and policy. Tracing the earliest appearances of an exotic plant reveals likely sites of introduction, paving the way for genetic studies to quantify founder events and identify potential source populations. Red brome (Bromus madritensis subsp. rubens) is a Mediterranean winter annual grass that has invaded even relatively undisturbed areas of western North America, where it threatens native plant communities. This study used herbarium records and contemporary published accounts to trace the early introductions and subsequent spread of red brome in western North America. The results challenge the most frequently cited sources describing the early history of this grass and suggest three possible modes for early introductions: the California Gold Rush and Central Valley wheat, southern California shipping, and northern California sheep. Subsequent periods of most rapid spread into new areas, from 1930 to 1942, and of greatest spread into new regions, during the past 50 years, coincide with ‘warm’ Pacific Decadal Oscillation regimes, which are linked to increased winter precipitation in the southwestern USA and northern Mexico. Global environmental change, including increased atmospheric CO2 levels and N deposition, may be contributing to the success of red brome, relative to native species.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
L Abrams (1904) Flora of Los Angeles and Vicinity Stanford University Press Stanford, California
L Abrams (1917) Flora of Los Angeles and Vicinity Stanford University Press Stanford, California
L Abrams (1940) Illustrated Flora of the Pacific States: Washington Oregon and California, Vol 1, Ophioglossaceae to Aristolochiaceae Stanford University Press Stanford, California
BJ Albee LM Shultz S Goodrich (1988) Atlas of the Vascular Plants of Utah Utah Museum of Natural History Occasional Publication No. 7. University of Utah Salt Lake City, Utah
SML Arreguín LG Cabrera NR Fernández LC Orozco CB Rodríguez BM Yepez (1997) Introducción a la flora del estado de Querétaro El consejo de ciencia y tecnología del estado de Querétaro del Instituto Politécnico Nacional y la Universidad Autónoma Chapingo Mexico
BA Auld J Hosking RE McFadyen (1982) ArticleTitleAnalysis of the spread of tiger pear and parthenium weed in Australia Australian Weeds 2 56–60
JW Bartolome (1979) ArticleTitleGermination and seedling establishment in California annual grasslands Journal of Ecology 67 272–281
FA Bazzaz (1986) Life history of colonizing plants: some demographic, genetic, and physiological features HA Mooney JA Drakem (Eds) Ecology of Biological Invasions of North America and Hawaii, Vol 58, Ecological Studies Series Springer-Verlag New York
WJ Beal (1896) Grasses of North America Vol 2 Henry Holt and Co. New York
JC Beatley (1966) ArticleTitleEcological status of introduced brome grasses in desert vegetation of southern Nevada Ecology 47 548–554
D Beesley (1996) Reconstructing the landscape: an environmental history 1820 to 1960. In: Status of the Sierra Nevada Vol 2, Sierra Nevada Ecosystem Project Final Report to Congress, pp 1–22. Centers for Water and Wildland Resources University of California Davis, California
AA Beetle (1977) ArticleTitleNoteworthy grasses from Mexico, V Phytologia 37 317–407
AA Beetle (1983) Las Gramíneas de México. Vol 1 Secretaria de Agricultura y Recursos Hidraulicos Mexico
HH Behr (1888) Flora of the Vicinity of San Francisco California San Francisco
Benchmark Maps (1995) New Mexico Road and Recreation Atlas. Benchmark Maps Berkeley California
Board of Harbor Commissioners of the City of Los Angeles (2001) Port history. Retrieved from http://www.laporthistory. org/level3/port_history.html on 20 January 2004.
CE Bock JH Bock JK Jepson JC Ortega (1986) ArticleTitleEcological effects of planting African love-grasses in Arizona National Geographic Research 2 456–463
K Brandegee (1892) ArticleTitleCatalogue of the flowering plants and ferns growing spontaneously in the city of San Francisco Zoë 2 334–386
TS Brandegee (1888) ArticleTitleFlora of the Santa Barbara Islands I Additions to the flora of Santa Cruz Island Proceedings of the California Academy of Sciences Series 2 1 210–226
TS Brandegee (1890a) ArticleTitleThe plants of Santa Catalina Island Zoë 1 107–115
TS Brandegee (1890b) ArticleTitleFlora of the California Islands Zoë 1 129–148
WH Brewer (1883) Pasture and forage plants. Report on the Productions of Agriculture as Returned at the Tenth Census (June 1 1880) US Government Printing Office Washington, DC
WH Brewer S Watson A Gray (1876) Geological Survey of California: Botany Vol 1. Welch Bigelow, Co. Cambridge, Massachusetts
ML Brooks (1998) Ecology of a biological invasion: alien annual plants in the Mojave Desert. PhD thesis Biology Department University of California, Riverside, California, 186 pp
ML Brooks (1999) ArticleTitleAlien annual grasses and fire in the Mojave Desert Madroño 46 13–19
ML Brooks (2000) ArticleTitleCompetition between alien annual grasses and native annual plants in the Mojave Desert American Midland Naturalist 144 92–108
DE Brown RA Minnich (1986) ArticleTitleFire and changes in creosote bush scrub of the western Sonoran Desert, California American Midland Naturalist 116 411–422
GF Buckley (1924) A taxonomic and economic study of the endemic and exotic species of Bromus in California. MS thesis University of California Berkeley, California
LT Burcham (1957) California Range Land: An Historical–Ecological Study of the Range Resource of California Department of Natural ResourcesSacramento California
RL Burgess (1965) ArticleTitleA checklist of the vascular flora of Tonto National Monument Journal of the Arizona Academy of Sciences 3 213–223
TL Burgess JE Bowers RM Turner (1991) ArticleTitleExotic plants at the Desert Laboratory, Tucson, Arizona Madroño 38 96–114
N Bustamante L Eugenia (1973) Flora de la Cuenca de Santiago de Chile. Ediciones de la Universidad de Chile Santiago Chile
CalFlora Occurrence Database (1999) Retrieved from http://elib.cs.berkeley.edu/calflora/ on 01 January 2001.
JW Caughey (1953) California EditionNumber2 Prentice-Hall New York
Cerda Lemus M (1996) Las Gramíneas de Aguascalientes Universidad Autonoma de Aguascalientes Mexico
JM Christian SD Wilson (1999) ArticleTitleLong-term ecosystem impacts of an introduced grass in the northern Great Plains Ecology 80 2397–2407
MJ Clauss DL Venable (2000) ArticleTitleSeed germination in desert annuals: an empirical test of adaptive bet hedging American Naturalist 155 168–186
JE Cole RB Dunbar TR McClanahan NA Muthiga (2000) ArticleTitleTropical Pacific forcing of decadal SST variability in the western Indian Ocean over the past two centuries Science 287 617–619
TJ Conway PP Tans LS Waterman (1994) Atmospheric CO2records from sties in the NOZZ/SMDL air sampling network TA Boden DP Kaiser RJ Spanski FW Stoss (Eds) Trends’93: a Compendium of Data on Global Change Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, Tennessee
DS Correll MC Johnston (1970) Manual of the Vascular Plants of Texas Texas Research Foundation Renner Texas
JR Cross (1981) ArticleTitleRhododendron ponticum in the Killarney oakwoods, southwest Ireland Journal of Ecology 69 807–824
CM D’Antonio PM Vitousek (1992) ArticleTitleBiological invasions by exotic grasses, the grass/fire cycle, and global change Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 23 63–87
FJ David (1993) Trigo en Chile: Una Historia Desconocida. Ediciones del Día Santiago Chile
A Davidson (1893) ArticleTitleImmigrant plants of Los Angeles Co., California, II Erythea 1 98–104
A Davidson (1907) ArticleTitleThe changes in our weeds Bulletin of the Southern California Academy of Sciences 6 11–12
RJ Davis (1952) Flora of Idaho Wm C. Brown and Co. Dubuque, Iowa
Davy JB (1902) Stock Ranges of Northwestern California: notes on the Grasses and Forage Plants and Range Conditions. US Department of Agriculture Bureau of Plant Industry Bulletin No. 12, 81 pp
DeLorme Mapping Company (1993a) Arizona Atlas and Gazetteer scale 1:250,000. DeLorme Freeport, Maine
DeLorme Mapping Company (1993b) Utah Atlas and Gazetteer scale 1:250,000. DeLorme Freeport, Maine
DeLorme Mapping Company (1995) Northern California Atlas and Gazetteer scale 1:150,000. EditionNumber3 DeLorme Freeport, Maine
InstitutionalAuthorNameDeLorme Mapping Company (1998) Southern and Central California Atlas and Gazetteerscale 1:150,000 EditionNumber4 DeLorme Yarmouth, Maine
InstitutionalAuthorNameESRI (Environmental System Research Institute Inc.) (1994) Arc/Info GIS Package v. 4. ESRI Redlands California
InstitutionalAuthorNameESRI (Environmental System Research Institute Inc.) (1999) ArcView GIS Package v. 3.2. ESRI Redlands California
RS Felger (2000) Flora of the Gran Desierto and Río Colorado of Northwestern Mexico University of Arizona Press Tucson, Arizona
F Forcella (1985) ArticleTitleFinal distribution is related to rate of spread of alien weeds Weed Research 25 181–191
RE Frenkel (1967) Adventive vegetation on certain california roadsides Geography Department, University of California Berkeley, California
RE Frenkel (1970) Ruderal Vegetation along Some California Roadsides. University of California Press Berkeley California
Frye TC and Rigg GB (1912) Northwestern Flora, p. 66. University of Washington, Seattle, Washington.
D Genin A Badan-Dangon (1991) ArticleTitleGoat herbivory and plant phenology in a Mediterranean shrubland of northern Baja Journal of Arid Environments 21 113–121
Gerber JB (1999) The Gold Rush origins of California’s wheat economy, p. 7. Retrieved from http://www. rohan.sdsu.edu/faculty/jgerber/wheat.pdf on 24 August 2001.
FW Gould R Moran (1981) The Grasses of Baja California Mexico. Memoir No. 12 San Diego Society for Natural History San Diego, California
Griffiths D (1902) Forage conditions on the northern border of the Great Basin, being a report upon investigations made during July and August, 1901, in the region between Winnemucca, Nevada and Ontario, Oregon. USDA Bureau of Plant Ind. Bull. No. 15, 60 pp
SL Gulmon (1979) ArticleTitleCompetition and coexistence: three annual grass species American Midland Naturalist 101 403–416
GW Hendry MK Bellue (1925) ArticleTitleThe plant content of adobe bricks California Historical Society Quarterly 4 361–373
GW Hendry MK Bellue (1936) An approach to southwestern agricultural history through adobe brick analysis. University of New Mexico Bulletin No. 296 Vol 1 Anthropological Series, pp 65–72 University Press Albuquerque, New Mexico
EW Hilgard TC Jones RW Furnas (1882) Report on the Climatic and Agricultural Features and the Agricultural Practice and Needs of the Arid Regions of the Pacific Slope US Government Printing Office Washington DC
AS Hitchcock (1913) Mexican Grasses in the United States National Herbarium. Contributions from the US National Herbarium Vol 17 (part 3) US Government Printing Office Washington DC
R Hoffmann (1932) ArticleTitleNotes on the flora of the Channel Islands off Santa Barbara, California Bulletin of the Southern California Academy of Sciences 31 46–60
PM Holmes RM Cowling (1997) ArticleTitleThe effects of invasion by Acacia saligna on the guild structure and regeneration capabilities of South African fynbos shrublands Journal of Applied Ecology 34 317–332
AH Holmgren (1942) A Handbook of the Vascular Plants of Northeastern Nevada Utah Agricultural Experiment Station Logan, Utah
JT Howell (1937) ArticleTitleA Russian collection of California plants Leaflets of Western Botany 2 17–20
JT Howell (1942) ArticleTitleA list of vascular plants from Guadalupe Island, Lower California Leaflets of Western Botany 3 145–155
T Howell (1903) A Flora of Northwest America containing a brief description of all the known indigenous and naturalized plants growing without cultivation north of California west of Utah, and south of British Columbia, Vol 1, Phanerogamae, p. 770. Portland Oregon
LC Hulbert (1955) ArticleTitleEcological studies of Bromus tectorum and other annual bromegrasses Ecological Monographs 25 181–213
R Hunter (1991) ArticleTitleBromus invasions on the Nevada Test Site: present status of Bromus rubens and Bromus tectorum with notes on their relationship to disturbance and altitude Great Basin Naturalist 51 176–182
PT Husnot (1899) Graminées. Descriptions figures et usages des graminées spontanées et cultivées de France Belgique Iles Britanniques, Suisse
RS Inouye GS Byers JH Brown (1980) ArticleTitleEffects of predation and competition on survivorship, fecundity, and community structure of desert annuals Ecology 61 1344–1351
LE Jackson J Roy (1986) ArticleTitleGrowth patterns of Mediterranean annual and perennial grasses under simulated rainfall regimes of southern France and California Acta Ecologia 21 191–212
Jandel (1993) TableCurve Software. Jandel Scientific San Rafael California
Jelinek LJ ( 1979) Harvest Empire: A History of California Agriculture. Boyd and Fraser, San Francisco, California, 113 pp.
WL Jepson (1909) A Flora of California Associated Students Store University of California, Berkeley, California
S Junak T Ayers R Scott D Wilkin D Young (1995) A Flora of Santa Cruz Island. Santa Barbara Botanic Garden Santa Barbara California
JT Kartesz (1988) Flora of Nevada. PhD thesis Department of Botany University of Nevada, Reno, Nevada
PB Kennedy (1903) ArticleTitleBotanical features around Reno Muhlenbergia 3 17–32
AJ Kwiatkowska E Spalik A Michalak K Palinska D Panufnik (1997) ArticleTitleInfluence of the size and density of Carpinus betulus on the spatial distribution and rate of deletion of forest-floor species in thermophilous oak forest Plant Ecology 129 1–10
Langley HG (1858) The San Francisco Directory; Chronological History of Principal Events, as cited by Filion R (no data given) San Francisco History Events of 1857. Retrieved from http://www.zpub.com/sf50/sf/he857.htm on 22 January 2002.
T Lebgue L Valerio (1986) Manual para Indentificar las Gramíneas de Chihuahua Talleres Gráficos del Gobierno del Estado de Chihuahua Mexico
RN Mack (2000) Assessing the extent, status, and dynamics of plant invasions: current and emerging approaches HA Mooney RJ Hobbs (Eds) Invasive Species in a Changing World Island Press Washington DC
RN Mack JL Harper (1977) ArticleTitleInterference in dune annuals: spatial pattern and neighbourhood effects Journal of Ecology 65 345–363
B Maguire (1935) ArticleTitleDistributional notes on plants of the Great Basin Region I Leaflets of Western Botany 1 185–188
Mantua N (2000) The Pacific Decadal Oscillation (PDO). On: Joint Institute for the Study of the Atmosphere and Ocean (website). Retrieved from http://www.jisao.washington.edu/pdo/ on 21 January 2002
EE Marten (1922) The development of wheat culture in the San Joaquin Valley 1846–1900. MA thesis History Department, University of California California
C Marticorena (1990) ArticleTitleContribucion a la estadistica de la flora vascular de Chile Gayana Botanica 47 85–114
C Marticorena M Quezada (1985) ArticleTitleFlora vascular de Chile Gayana Botanica 41 1–157
PS Martin D Yetman M Fishbein P Jenkins TR Devender ParticleVan Wilson RK (1998) Gentry’s Río Maya Plants: the Tropical Deciduous Forest and Environs of Northwest Mexico revised and edited. University Arizona Press Tucson, Arizona
WC Martin CR Hutchins (1980) A Flora of New Mexico Gantner Verlag Kommanditgesellschaft: J. Cramer
O Matthei (1986) ArticleTitleEl genero Bromus L (Poaceae) en Chile Gayana Botanica 43 47–110
O Matthei C Marticorena R Rodríguez M Quezada (1995) Manual de las Malezas que Crecen en Chile. Alfabeta Impresores Santiago Chile
E Matuda (1958) Las Gramíneas del Estado de Mexico. Direccion de Recursos Naturales Toluca Mexico
R McVaugh (1983) Gramineae. Flora Novo-Galiciana: A Descriptive Account of the Vascular Plants of Western Mexico Vol 14. University of Michigan Press Ann Arbor, Michigan
AL Medina (1988) ArticleTitleDiets of scaled quail in Arizona Journal of Wildlife Management 52 753–757
RA Minnich E Franco-Vizcaino (1997) ArticleTitleMediterranean vegetation of northern Baja California Fremontia 25 3–12
RS Mitchell (1986) A Checklist of New York State Plants. Contributions to a Flora of New York State Checklist III. Bull. No. 458 New York State Museum Albany, New York
HA Mooney EL Dunn F Shropshire L Song (1972) ArticleTitleLand-use history of California and Chile as related to the structure of the sclerophyll scrub vegetation Madroño 21 305–319
R Moran (1996) The flora of Guadalupe Island Mexico. Memoirs of the California Academy of Sciences No. 19 California Academy of Sciences San Francisco, California
InstitutionalAuthorNameNational Invasive Species Council (2001) Management Plan: Meeting the Invasive Species Challenge DC Washington
Neftel A, Friedli H, Moor E, Lötscher H, Oeschger H, Siegenthaler U and Stauffer B (1994) Historical CO2 record from the Siple Station ice core. In: Boden TA, Kaiser DP, Spanski RJ and Stoss FW (eds) Trends’93: a Compendium of Data on Global Change, p. 13. Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, Tennessee
Nevada Department of Highways (1984?) Nevada Map Atlas, scale ca. 1:300,000. Nev. Dept. Highways, Carson City, Nevada.
SJ Novak RN Mack (1993) ArticleTitleGenetic variation in Bromus tectorum (Poaceae): comparison between native and introduced populations Heredity 71 167–176
SJ Novak RN Mack (2001) ArticleTitleTracing plant introduction and spread: genetic evidence from Bromus tectorum (cheatgrass) BioScience 51 114–122
SJ Novak RN Mack DE Soltis (1991) ArticleTitleGenetic variation in Bromus tectorum (Poaceae): population differentiation in its North American range American Journal of Botany 78 1150–1161
SJ Novak RN Mack PS Soltis (1993) ArticleTitleGenetic variation in Bromus tectorum (Poaceae): introduction dynamics in North America Canadian Journal of Botany 71 1441–1447
CR Orcutt (1885) Flora of Southern and Lower California: a Checklist of the Flowering Plants California San Diego
PE Padgett EB Allen (1999) ArticleTitleDifferential responses to nitrogen fertilizer in native shrubs and exotic annuals common to Mediterranean coastal sage scrub of California Plant Ecology 144 93–101
SB Parish (1890) ArticleTitleNotes on the naturalized plants of southern California IV Zoë 1 182–188
SB Parish (1909) ArticleTitleNotes on some introduced plants of southern California I Muhlenbergia 5 109–115
SB Parish (1920) ArticleTitleImmigrant plants of southern California Bulletin of the Southern California Academy of Sciences 19 3–30
ME Peck (1955) A Manual of the Higher Plants of Oregon. Binfords and Mort Portland Oregon
ME Peck (1961) A Manual of the Higher Plants of Oregon EditionNumber2 Oregon State University Press Oregon
AM Phillips (1975) ArticleTitleFlora of the Rampart Cave area, lower Grand Canyon, Arizona Journal of the Arizona Academy of Sciences 10 148–159
RL Piemeisel (1932) Weedy abandoned lands and the weed hosts of the beet leafhopper US Department of Agriculture Circular No. 229 US
TL Piemeisel FR Lawson (1937) Types of Vegetation in the San Joaquin Valley of California and Their Relation to the Beet Leafhopper USDepartment of Agriculture Technical Bulletin No. 557 US
CV Piper (1906) Flora of the State of Washington p 144. Contributions of the US National Herbarium Vol 11 US Government Printing Office Washington, DC
JV Reyna (1977) Gramíneas de Coahuila. Monografia Technicocientifica Bueanavista Saltillo, Mexico
WW Robbins (1940) Alien Plants Growing Without Cultivation in California. University California Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin No. 637 University of California Berkeley,California
GF Rogers (1985) ArticleTitleMortality of burned Cereus giganteus Ecology 66 630–632
J Roy ML Navas L Sonié (1991) Invasion by annual brome grasses: a case study challenging the homoclime approach to invasions RH Groves F DiCastri (Eds) Biogeography of Mediterranean Invasions Cambridge University Press Cambridge
Sánchez Sánchez O. La Flora del Valle de México. Published by author, Mexico City, Mexico, 519 pp.
F Sales (1994) ArticleTitleEvolutionary tendencies in some annual species of Bromus (Bromus L sect. Genea Dunn. (Poaceae)) Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society 115 197–210
CL Shear (1900) Studies on American Grasses: A Revision of the North American species of Bromus occurring north of Mexico p. 28. Bulletin No. 23 US Department of Agriculture, Division of Agrostology Washington, DC
SD Smith TE Huxman SF Zitzer TN Charles DC Housman JS Coleman LK Fenstermaker JK Seeman RS Nowak (2000) ArticleTitleElevated CO2 increases productivity and invasive species success in an arid ecosystem Nature 408 79–82 Occurrence Handle10.1038/35040544 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DC%2BD3cXotVaks74%3D Occurrence Handle11081510
Specimen Management System for California Herbaria (1999) Retrieved from http://www.mip.berkeley.edu/www_apps/smasch/ on 15 January 2002.
MW Talbot HH Biswell AL Hormay (1939) ArticleTitleFluctuations in the annual vegetation of California Ecology 20 394–402
Tausch RJ, Svejcar T and Burkhardt JW (1994) Patterns of annual grass dominance on Anaho Island: implications for Great Basin vegetation. In: Proceedings, Ecology and Management of Annual Rangelands, pp 120–125. General Technical Report No. 313. Intermountain Research Station, Ogden, Utah
RL Taylor B MacBryde (1977) Vascular Plants of British Columbia: A Descriptive Resource Inventory. Technical Bulletin No. 4 University of British Columbia Press Vancouver,BC
Texas A M University (1999) Bioinformatics Working Group. Retrieved from http://www.csdl.tamu.edu/FLOR on 04 February 2002.
JJ Thornber (1909) Vegetation groups of the Desert Laboratory Spalding (Eds) Distribution and Movements of Desert Plants Carnegie Institute Publication No. 113 Washington DC
JJ Thornber (1910) Grazing Ranges of Arizona p. 321. University Arizona Agricultural Extension Station Bulletin No. 65 University of Arizona Tucson, Arizona
InstitutionalAuthorNameTopography International (1986) Baja Topographic Atlas Directory scale ca. 1:108,000 Topography International Inc. San Clemente, California
InstitutionalAuthorNameUS Geological Survey (1967) Grand Canyon National Park scale 1:62,500 Washington DC
US Geological Survey (2000) Geographic Names Information System On-line Data Base. Retrieved from http://wwwnmd.usgs.gov/www/gnis on 4 February 2002.
PM Vitousek (1994) ArticleTitleBeyond global warming: ecology and global change Ecology 75 1861–1876
PM Vitousek LR Walker (1989) ArticleTitleBiological invasion by Myrica faya in Hawaii: plant demography, nitrogen fixation, ecosystem effects Ecological Monographs 59 247–265
PM Vitousek CM D’Antonio LL Loope M Rejmanek R Westbrooks (1997) ArticleTitleIntroduced species: a significant component of human-caused global change New Zealand Journal of Ecology 21 1–16
M Wade (1997) Predicting plant invasion: making a start JH Brock M Wade P Pyšek D Greenend (Eds) Plant Invasions: Studies from North America and Europe Backhuys Leiden, The Netherlands
JQA Warren PW Gates (1967) California Ranchos and Farms 1846–1862 Including the Letters of John Quincy Adams Warren of 1861 Being Largely Devoted to Livestock, Wheat Farming, Fruit Raising, and the Wine Industry, p. 209. The State Historical Society of Wisconsin Madison, Wisconsin
PL Warren KL Reichhardt DA Mouat BT Brown RR Johnson (1987) Vegetation of Grand Canyon National Park. Technical Report No. 9. Cooperative National Park Research Studies Unit University Arizona Tucson, Arizona
S Watson (1880) Geological Survey of California: Botany John Wilson and Son Cambridge, Massachusetts
E Weber (2001) ArticleTitleCurrent and potential ranges of three exotic goldenrods (Solidago) in Europe Conservation Biology 15 122–128
Wefald M (2000) TRS2LL Program. Retrieved from http://www.esg.montana.edu/gl/trs-data.html (previous web address, http://www.crl.com/\sim wefald/trs2ll.html) on 30 April 2001
IL Wiggins (1980) Flora of Baja California. Stanford University Press Stanford California
Wilson J (1985) Planting Time in the Breadbasket of the World: California’s Great Wheat-growing Era, 1860–1890. Book Club of California.
E Windle (1931) History of Santa Catalina Island. The Catalina Islander Avalon California
CK Yoder P Vivin LA DeFalco JR Seemann RS Novak (2000) ArticleTitleRoot growth and function of three Mohave Desert grasses in response to elevated atmospheric CO2 concentration New Phytologist 145 245–256
JA Young RA Evans (1973) ArticleTitleDowny brome: intruder in the plant succession of big sagebrush communities in the Great Basin Journal of Range Management 26 410–415
PH Zedler CR Gautier GS McMaster (1983) ArticleTitleVegetation change in response to extreme events: the effects of a short interval between fires in California chaparral and coastal scrub Ecology 64 809–818
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Salo, L.F. Red brome (Bromus rubens subsp. madritensis) in North America: possible modes for early introductions, subsequent spread. Biol Invasions 7, 165–180 (2005). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10530-004-8979-4
Received:
Accepted:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10530-004-8979-4