Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

The area of potential shallow-water tropical and subtropical coral ecosystems in the United States

  • Report
  • Published:
Coral Reefs Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Geographic information system-based analysis was used to derive comprehensive, consistent estimates of the potential area of broadly defined, shallow-water, tropical and subtropical coral ecosystems within the territorial sea and exclusive economic zone of the United States. A coral ecosystem is composed of habitats including unconsolidated sediment, mangrove, hermatypic coral, colonized hardbottom, and submerged vegetation, and major structural zones like reef crest, lagoon, and fore reef. This broad definition reflects the importance of both reef and non-reef habitats and structural zones in the function of these ecosystems. Nautical charts, published by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration’s Office of the Coast Survey, provide a consistent source of 10-fathom (∼18 m) and 100-fathom (∼183 m) depth curve information. The 10-fathom or 100-fathom depth curves are used as surrogates for the potential distribution and extent of shallow-water coral ecosystems in tropical and subtropical U.S. waters. An estimated 36,813 sq·km area has been identified where coral ecosystems can potentially be found in waters less than 10 fathoms (18 m) deep. In addition, an estimated 143,059 sq·km area has been identified where coral ecosystems potentially can be found in U.S. waters at depths down to 100 fathoms (183 m). Results also indicate that previous studies underestimated the extent of potential coral ecosystems for some locations in U.S. tropical and subtropical waters by as much as 100% and that the regional distribution of coral ecosystems has been incorrectly reported.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Barnes R, Hughes R (1999) An introduction to marine ecology. In: Malden MA (ed) 3rd edn. Blackwell Science Inc, pp 117–141

  • Bellwood DR, Hughes TP, Nyström M (2004) Confronting the coral reef crisis. Nature 429:827–833

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Causey B, Delaney J, Diaz E, Dodge D, Garcia J, Higgins J, Keller B, Kelty R, Jaap W, Matos M, Schmahl G, Rogers C, Miller M, Turgeon D (2002) Status of coral reefs in the US Caribbean and Gulf of Mexico: Florida, Texas, Puerto Rico, US Virgin Islands, Navassa. In: Wilkinson C (ed) Status of coral reefs of the world 2002. Australian Institute of Marine Science, pp 251–276

    Google Scholar 

  • Coyne MS, Battista TA, Anderson M, Waddell J, Smith W, Jokiel P, Kendall MS, Monaco ME (2003) Benthic habitats of the main Hawaiian Islands. NOAA Technical Memorandum NOS NCCOS CCMA (on–line) Silver Spring, MD. URL: http://biogeo.nos.noaa.gov/projects/mapping/pacific/

  • Christensen JD, Jeffery CFG, Caldow C, Monaco ME, Kendall MS, Appeldoorn RS (2003) Cross-shelf habitat utilization patterns of reef fishes in southwestern Puerto Rico. Gulf Carib Res 14(2):9–27

    Google Scholar 

  • Davidson MG (2002) Protecting coral reefs: the principal national and international legal instruments. Harv Environ Law Rev 26:499–546

    Google Scholar 

  • Dulvy NK, Freckleton RP, Polunin NVC (2004) Coral reef cascades and the indirect effects of predator removal by exploitation. Ecol Lett 7:410–416

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • FMRI (Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission, Florida Marine Research Institute and National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration) (2000) Benthic habitats of the Florida Keys. FMRI Tech Rep TR-4:53

  • FMRI (on-line) Marine Resource Geographic Information System Internet Map Server. St. Petersburg, Florida. URL: http://ocean.floridamarine.org/mrgis/viewer.htm

  • Friedlander AM, DeMartini EE (2002) Contrast in density, size, and biomass of reef fishes between the northwestern and main Hawaiian islands: the effects of fishing down apex predators. Mar Ecol Prog Ser 230:253–264

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gardner TA, Cote IM, Gill JA, Grant A, Watkinson AR (2003) Long-term region-wide declines in Caribbean corals. Science 301:958–960

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Glynn PW (1996) Coral reef bleaching: facts, hypotheses and implications. Global Change Biol 2:495–509

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Grigg RW (1997) Paleoceanography of the Hawaiian-Emperor Archipelago–Revisited. Coral Reefs 16:145–153

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Grigg RW, Epp D (1989) Critical depth for the survival of coral islands: effects on the Hawaiian Archipelago. Science 243:638–641

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hoegh-Guldberg O (1999) Climate change, coral bleaching and the future of the world’s coral reefs. Mar Freshwater Res 50:839–866

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hunter CL (1995) Review of status of coral reefs around American flag Pacific islands and assessment of need, value, and feasibility of establishing a coral reef fishery management plan for the western Pacific region. Final Report prepared for the Western Pacific Regional Fishery Management Council, p 39

  • Huston MA (1985) Patterns in species diversity on coral reefs. Ann Rev Ecol Syst 6:149–177

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jaap WC (1984) The ecology of the south Florida coral reefs: a community profile. U.S. Fish Wildlife Ser. FWS/OBS-82/08, p 138

  • Kendall MS, Christensen JD, Hillis-Starr Z (2003) Multi-scale data used to analyze the spatial distribution of French grunts, Haemulon flavolineatum, relative to hard and soft bottom in a benthic landscape. Environ Biol Fish 66:19–26

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kendall MS, Monaco ME, Buja KR, Christensen JD, Kruer CR, Finkbeiner M, Warner RA (2001) Methods used to map the benthic habitats of Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands. Technical Memorandum NOS NCCOS CCMA 152. Silver Spring, MD

  • Lalli CM, Parsons TR (1995) Biological Oceanography: an introduction. Butterworth–Heinemann Ltd, Oxford, UK, pp 220–233

    Google Scholar 

  • Leichter JJ, Stewart HL, Miller SL (2003) Episodic nutrient transport to Florida coral reefs. Limnol Oceanogr 48:1394–1407

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lesser MP (2004) Experimental biology of coral reef ecosystems. J Exp Mar Biol Ecol 300:217–252

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lindeman KC (1986) Development of larvae of the French grunt, Haemulon flavolineatum, and comparative development of twelve western Atlantic species of Haemulon. Bull Mar Sci 39:673–716

    Google Scholar 

  • Lobel PS (2003) Marine life of Johnston Atoll, Central Pacific Ocean. Natural World Press Inc, USA, pp 128

    Google Scholar 

  • Maragos JE, Jokiel PL (1986) Reef corals of Johnston Atoll: One of the world’s most isolated reefs. Coral Reefs 4:141–150

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Miller SL, Crosby MP (1998) The extent and condition of US coral reefs. In: NOAA’s State of the Coast Report. Silver Spring, MD, pp 1–34

  • Monaco ME, Christensen JD, Rohmann SO (2001) Mapping and monitoring of US coral ecosystems. The coupling of ecology, remote sensing, and GIS technology. Earth Syst Monit 12:1–7,16

    Google Scholar 

  • Mumby PJ, Edwards AJ, Arlas-González JE, Lindeman KC, Blackwell PG, Gall A, Gorczynska MI, Harborne AR, Pescod CL, Renken H, Wabnitz CCC, Llewellyn G (2004) Mangroves enhance the biomass of coral reef fish communities in the Caribbean. Nature 427:533–536

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • NOAA (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration) (On-line) NOAA’s Medium Resolution Digital Vector Shoreline data product. Silver Spring, MD. URL: ftp://spo.nos.noaa.gov/datasets/CADS/GIS_Files/ShapeFiles/medium_shoreline

  • NOAA (1998) Benthic Habitats of the Florida Keys digital data product. Silver Spring, MD. URL: ftp://spo.nos.noaa.gov/datasets/benthic_habitats

  • NOAA (2003) Atlas of the shallow-water benthic habitats of the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands-draft, p 160

  • NOAA/NOS (2003) Supplemental atlas derived from NOAA/NOS benthic habitats of the main Hawaiian islands-interim product. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Silver Spring, MD, p 103

  • NOAA (2004) Atlas of the shallow-water benthic habitats of American Samoa, Guam, and the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands. NOAA National Centers for Coastal Ocean Science, Biogeography Team. NOAA Technical Memorandum NOS NCCOS 8, p 126

  • Ogden JC, Ehrlich PR (1977) The behavior of heterotypic resting schools of juvenile grunts (Pomadasyidae). Mar Biol 42:273–280

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pandolfi JM (2002) Coral community dynamics at multiple scales. Coral Reefs 21:13–23

    Google Scholar 

  • Parrish JD (1989) Fish communities of interacting shallow-water habitats in tropical oceanic regions. Mar Ecol Prog Ser 58:143–160

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Scavia D, Field JC, Boesch DF, Buddemeier RW, Burkett V, Cayan DR, Fogarty M, Harwell MA, Howarth RW, Mason C, Reed DJ, Royer TC, Sallenger AH, Titus JG (2002) Climate change impacts on US coastal and marine ecosystems. Estuaries 25:149–164

    Google Scholar 

  • Spalding MD, Grenfell AM (1997) New estimates of global and regional coral reef areas. Coral Reefs 16:225–230

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Spalding MD, Ravilious C, Green EP (2001) World atlas of coral reefs. Prepared at the UNEP World Conservation Monitoring Centre. University of California, Berkeley

    Google Scholar 

  • Stumpf RP, Holderied K, Sinclair M (2003) Determination of water depth with high-resolution satellite imagery over variable bottom types. Limnol Oceanogr 48(1, part 2):547–556

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Szmant AM (2002) Nutrient enrichment on coral reefs: is it a major cause of coral reef decline?. Estuaries 25:743–766

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Veron JEN (1986) Corals of Australia and the Inso-Pacific. Angus and Robertson, London

    Google Scholar 

  • West JM, Salm RV (2003) Resistance and resilience to coral bleaching: implications for coral reef conservation and management. Conservation Biol 17:956–967

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wilkinson C (ed) (2002) Status of coral reefs of the world: 2002. Aust Inst of Mar Sci

  • Wolanski E, Richmond R, McCook L, Sweatman H (2003) Mud, marine snow and coral reefs. Am Sci 91:44–51

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to thank Paula Allen, Marlin Atkinson, Jim Bohnsack, Billy Causey, Athline Clark, Richard Dodge, Andrew David, Steve Dollar, Alan Friedlander, Virginia Garrison, Michael Hamnett, Kristine Holderied, Cindy Hunter, Walter Jaap, Paul Jokiel, Brian Keller, Matt Kendall, Henry Norris, Will Smith, Jenny Waddell, Jennifer Wheaton, and three anonymous reviewers for their review of earlier versions of this paper. This work was funded, in part, by NOAA’s Coral Reef Conservation Fund.

Disclaimer: The use of trade names in this article does not constitute an endorsement of these products by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Special Projects, National Ocean Service, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 1305 East West Highway, Silver Spring, MD, 20910, USA

    S. O. Rohmann, J. J. Hayes & R. C. Newhall

  2. Biogeography Team, National Ocean Service, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 1305 East West Highway, Silver Spring, MD, 20910, USA

    M. E. Monaco

  3. Department of Oceanography, School of Ocean and Earth Science and Technology, University of Hawai‘i at Manoa, 1000 Pope Street, Honolulu, HI, 96822, USA

    R. W. Grigg

Authors
  1. S. O. Rohmann
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. J. J. Hayes
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. R. C. Newhall
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. M. E. Monaco
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. R. W. Grigg
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to S. O. Rohmann.

Additional information

Communicated by Biological Editor K. Sullivan Sealey

Appendix 1

Appendix 1

Table 3 The area from the shoreline to the 10-fathom or 100-fathom depth curve, the chart number, chart inset map identifier, and scale of each NOAA nautical chart used to digitize depth curves. For some locations, 10-fathom and 100-fathom depth curves were not available and other depth curves were digitized. Please refer to the footnotes for details. Area values are in square kilometer
Full size table

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Rohmann, S.O., Hayes, J.J., Newhall, R.C. et al. The area of potential shallow-water tropical and subtropical coral ecosystems in the United States. Coral Reefs 24, 370–383 (2005). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00338-005-0014-4

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00338-005-0014-4

Keywords

Search

Navigation